Kakuta Haruo---Decoding Japan---

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Location: Sakai, Osaka, Japan

Tuesday, December 30, 2014

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (2-2) ——The Enclosure and the Salt Production around the Seto Inland Sea (2)——

It seems that the occupation of the salt pans in Ako was transferred from Tomo Clan to Todai-ji Temple, violently or by mutual consent, sometime in the latter half of the 8th century. What fate did Hata Clan face then? Were they employed by Todai-ji Temple to run the salt pans? Or did they just get pitched out of the salt industry? In the latter case, by Fujiwara Yasunori’s classification, leading piracy might have been their unavoidable choice. The presence of salt pans in the 8th century is supported by other documents. Nihon Koki, for example, has an entry dated November the 14th, 799, which tells us: Bizen Province said, “People in Kojima County have made their living by producing salt, and prepared for Cho and Yo taxes with the salt. The mountains, the wilds, the seashores, and the islands there have been for common use as a rule. Powerful clans and families have come to disturb and deprive the people. The more prosperous the powerful become, the more distressed the poor turn. We beg things to be replaced.” The Emperor ordered, “It is against the public benefit that the powerful intimidate the poor. It must be stopped and never be allowed to happen.”

Monday, December 29, 2014

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (2-1) ——The Enclosure and the Salt Production around the Seto Inland Sea (1)——

From the first half of the 8th century to the latter half of the 9th century, central noble clans and temples enclosed the sea, islands and seashores, and urged large-scale salt production around the Seto Inland Sea. As a result, registered farmers and fishermen were locked out of seashores, and became hobos. In some enclosure cases, the central clans and temples enclosed the sea, islands and seashores to tap rice fields. Daian-ji Temple, for example, enclosed 1.5 square kilometers of land in Kmitsumichi, Mino and Tsudaka Counties, Bicchu Province. Todai-ji Temple enclosed Inano-sho in Kawabe County, Settsu Province. In the other cases, they enclosed the sea, islands and seashores to produce salt in a large scale. Horyu-ji Temple, for instance, enclosed 2 beaches in Inami and Shikama Counties, Harima Province. Gango-ji Temple enclosed Yakishio and Shioya in Asaguchi County, Bicchu Province. Saidai-ji Temple enclosed Shiogiyama in Harima Province and Shioyama in Samukawa County, Sanuki Province. Todai-ji Temple enclosed Shioyama in Ako County, Harima Province, where, as early as in the middle of the 8th century, Tomo Inukai (?-762.10.30), the then Harima Province governor, appointed Hata Oko as a deputy and tried to build salt pans. We can tell by the place-names that they were producing salt there. The Japanese phrase “shio” means salt.

Saturday, December 27, 2014

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-4) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (4)——

Whether you believe in Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, which is usually regarded to be more reliable than other documents, or in Riho Oki and Okagami Uragaki, or even if we can’t tell who conspired with whom against who in the incidents, we can clearly see the outcomes. Who was the biggest winner after all the conspiratorial incidents? Fujiwara Mototsune was. He successfully became the premier after Yoshifusa’s death, going over Yoshimi’s head, who had actually died before Yoshifusa’s death, though. Yoshifusa and Mototsune opened a Fujiwara regency regime. Who was the biggest loser then? Tomo Clan were. They were almost exterminated. Who was the second biggest loser? Ki Clan were. They were diminished. Tomo Clan used to guard the imperial palace’s gates in farther ancient times. Ki Clan became powerful, involved in sending soldiers to Korea Peninsula also in farther ancient times. Both clans used to have their footing on Shikoku Island areas along the Seto Inland Sea, and used to enjoy sea traffic authority in the Seto Inland Sea. As a result, some of the fishermen who had been closed out from seashores enclosed by good-family clans and big temples were organized under the both clans as salters or rowers. It is interesting that Otenmon Conspiracy broke out during the first uprisings of the Japanese pirates, and that the piracy ceased within a few years. The young good-family members who were condemned by Fujiwara Yasunori for leading piracy might have belonged to Tomo and Ki Clans. They might have been as violent and cruel as Tomo Yoshio. Thanks to “good” governors such as Yasunori, the piracy became under control, but, after half a century, another young good-family member, Fujiwara Sumitomo, emerged to be a pirate king this time, learning a lesson from the first uprisings.

Thursday, December 25, 2014

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-3) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (3)——

Can you tell who conspired with whom against who? Hardly can I. In Riho Oki and Okagami Uragaki’s story, pecking order No.3 and No.4 tried to oust No.2, maybe to get promoted, but failed. Maybe, it was pecking No.2 who tried to….. We have a few more clues: Fujiwara Yoshifusa, pecking order No.1, had been seriously ill from the end of the year 864 to September 865. Fujiwara Mototsune, Yoshifusa’s adopted son, was yet to be in his thirties. Who would be Fujiwara Clan’s leader if Yoshifusa were to die? At the end of the year 864, there was also a whistle-blowing that Minamoto Makoto was planning to revolt with his younger brothers, Toru and Tsutomu. Tomo Yoshio attacked Minamoto Clan counting on the letter. Who on earth composed the letter? At the time of Otenmon Incident, Oyake Taketori was working for Bicchu Province. He had been a low-ranked officer in Wu Hyoe Fu, a kind of the office of the guards. Minamoto Tsutomu supervised the office of the guards before he was later promoted to be the vice-governor in Bicchu Province in January, 866. What a coincidence! In the spring of the year 866, Tomo Yoshio surrounded Minamoto Makoto’s mansion house, claiming that he was just sending messengers. On August the 3rd, 866, as you already know, Oyake Taketori notified that Tomo Yoshio and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to Oten-mon Gate. On the 29th, Oyake Taketori’s daughter was murdered by Ikue Tsuneyama. Even if we can’t tell who conspired with whom against who, we can learn a lesson through those incidents. Blood will have blood. (to be continued)

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-2) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (2)——

Riho Oki (Prince Shigeakira’s Diary) and Okagami Uragaki (The Collection of Notes on Okagami), however, tell us another story. It starts in this way: Fujiwara Yoshimi, the premier’s younger brother, consulted with Tomo Yoshio about throwing out Minamoto Makoto. They told Fujiwara Mototsune, Fujiwara Yoshifusa’s adopted son, to come, and instructed that it was Minamoto Makoto who set Oten-mon Gate on fire. Mototsune was surprised to hear that, and asked them if Yoshifusa knew the story. Yoshimi answered no. Mototsune reported the story to Yoshifusa in haste. Yoshifusa responded that Sa Daijin had rendered meritorious service to the Emperor, and that it was unreasonable to accuse of the crime when it was uncertain whether the story was true or false, and then reported to Emperor Seiwa, “It was I who should be punished first if Sa Daijin were to be punished.” As the Emperor did not know the story, he was greatly surprised. Eventually on August the 3rd, 866, Oyake Taketori notified that Tomo Yoshio and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to the gate. And blah blah blah….. (to be continued)

Wednesday, December 24, 2014

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-1) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (1)——

Fujiwara Yoshifusa (804-872.9.2) and his younger brother, Yoshimi (813/817-867.10.10), were working at central (national?) politics hand in hand from 857, when Yoshifusa was promoted to be Daijo Daijin (a kind of a premier), and Yoshimi Wu Daijin (a kind of the second vice-premier just inferior to Sa Daijin), until Otenmon Conspiracy (or also translated as Otenmon Incident). It is very questionable and mysterious who conspired with whom against who before and during the incident(s). According to Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, however, the incident started in this way: On March the 10th, Oten-mon Gate went up in flames. On the 22nd, great purification prayers were held in front of Kaisho-mon Gate, and Great Heart Sutra was recited in Sufuku-ji Temple. On July the 6th, an imperial delegate was sent to Ise Shrine, and oblations were offered to shrines in Nankai-do Region. On August the 3rd, 866, out of the blue, Oyake Taketori, a substitute the-rank-and-file officer in Bicchu Province, notified that Tomo Yoshio, a kind of the third vice-premier, and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to the gate. On the 29th, a daughter of Oyake Taketori was murdered, and Ikue Tsuneyama, Tomo Yoshio’s attendant, was tortured as a suspect. On the 30th, Tomo Kiyonawa was tortured as an instigator. On September the 22nd, Tomo Yoshio, Tomo Nakatsune, Ki Toyoshiro, Tomo Akizane, and Tomo Kiyotsuna were convicted of arson, and sentenced to banishment. Ki Natsui, Tomo Kawao, Tomo Natsukage, Tomo Huyumitsu, Ki Harumichi, Tomo Takayoshi, K Takeki, and Tomo Harunori were convicted of implication, and also sentenced to exile. On October the 25th, Ikue Tsuneyama and Urabe Tanushi confessed having assaulted Oyake Taketpri and killed his daughter. Riho Oki (Prince Shigeakira’s Diary) and Okagami Uragaki (The Collection of Notes on Okagami), however, tell us another story: (to be continued)

Saturday, December 13, 2014

The Two Classes in Ancient Japanese Pirate Societies

Professor Miyoshi Kiyotsura (?-918.12.7) composed a critical biography on Fujiwara Yasunori (825-895.4.21). Yasunori governed his provinces wisely. First, in Bizen and Bicchu Provinces in succession, he suppressed pirates. Later, in Dewa Province, he managed to put down Emishi rebellions. Yasunori was reported by Kiyotsura to have categorized pirates into two classes. First, “Most leaders are not local registered people, but dropouts (from the hierarchic center, the Henan-Kyo Capital). Some are young members of good family who have pursued means of support. Some others are officers’ valets who have married local women. They have made the remote provinces their hometowns.” The other class was made up with “those who don’t have atrocious minds but have been goaded by hunger and frost.” Yasunori’s angle on the social polarization among pirates might have enabled his good governance and suppression over rebellions. Fujiwara Sumitomo, the first pirate king in Ancient Japan, obviously belonged to the first class.

Monday, December 08, 2014

Excavated Ceramics Bring us Up to the 9th-and-10th-Century Sino-Japanese Trading

Imported Tang goods used to include ceramics, textiles, incense, medicine, colors, books, writing utensils and etc. We can, however, hardy find historical records which show us how those imported goods were actually exchanged in the 9th and 10th centuries. How were they exchanged with Tang traders at Hakata-tsu Port? How were they eventually carried to the Henan-Kyo City? We can only rely on excavated ceramics to answer those questions. Let me list up the excavated Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain along the Seto Inland Sea. They will be shown in the order of the number of Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain excavated, the name of the excavations, and the locations of the excavations. Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain may have been highly precious luxuries. Only a few of them have been found in each of just about 45% excavations in Japan. 6 Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain were found in Atago Excavations in Buzen Province (Ogura-kita Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 2 were found in Tokuriki Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 1 was found in Nagano A Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 52 pieces were found in Terada Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 22 ceramics Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain were found in Saiwaigi Excavations in Buzen ( Miyako Town, Miyako County, Fukuoka Prefecture). 5 were found in Akine Excavations in Nagato Province (Akine Town, Shimonoseki City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 1 was found in Kokubunji Excavations in Nagato (Chofu Town, Shimonoseki-City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 4 were found in Chusenshi Excavations in Nagato (Chusenshi Crossroads, Yamaguchi City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 6 were found in Kokufu Excavations in Nagato (Kokuga, Bofu City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 4 were found in Kokubunniji Excavations in Aki Province (Saijo Town, Higashi-hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Okiura Excavations in Aki (Kamagari Town, Kure City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 4 were found in Kusado-sengen Excavations in Bingo Province (Ashida River, Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Kokubu Excavations in Bingo (Moto Town, Fuchu City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Zabu Excavations in Bingo (Tsunogo Town, Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 1 was found in Agata-yada Excavations in Iyo Province (Imabari City, Ehime Prefecture). 1 was found in Kokubu Excavations in Sanuki Province (Fuchu Town, Sakaide City, Kagawa Prefecture). East of Bingo Province, we still have Bicchu, Bizen, and Harima Provinces along the Seto Inland Sea in Sanyo-do Region, and Awaji Province in Nankai-do Region. Yet, no Yue Province ceramic of celadon porcelain has been found in 16 other excavations in those areas. Officially speaking, the central government used to have the monopoly of purchasing Tang goods first, so highly precious luxuries such as Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain should have been purchased by the central government, and been carried to the Heian-Kyo City first. Some of them, of course, might have been awarded to provincial governments, provincial temples, and provincial nunneries. If everything had been done accordingly, then the distribution of Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain in excavations should have been more equal. The westward biased distribution suggests that there were people who were trading such luxuries with Tang traders, disregarding the central government, in the Western Seto Inland Sea after the first uprisings of Japanese pirates in the middle of the 9th century.

Sunday, December 07, 2014

Trading Scenes form Konjaku Monogatari

Konjaku Monogatari was edited sometime in the early 12th century, composed of Buddhism and other stories from India, China, and Japan. Its Vol.26’s 16th story is about Sadashige of Chinzei (today’s Kyushu), and the story shows us how exchanges between local officers and Tang traders were actually carried out. The story’s main character is Sadashige of Chikuzen Province (a part of today’s Fukuoka Prefecture), where Dazai-fu Administrative Office and Hakata-tsu Port were located. This Sadashige is presumed to be an actual figure, Hata Sadashige, who was so powerful that he was even mentioned in the entry dated September the 19th, 1009, of the journal kept by Fujiwara Michinaga, the clan leader of strong Fujiwara families and practically the top government officer at the time. Konjaku Monogatari writes, “When Shigesada finished the subordinate officer in Dazai-fu, he laid 30 nice swords in pledge, and took about 6 to 7 thousand of Tang goods from a Tang trader to give Fujiwara Yorimichi (Michinaga’s eldest son) and other personal acquaintances.” On his way back to Hakata, he exchanged his suits as an officer with pearls at Yodo-tsu Port. At Hakata-tsu Port, he visited the Tang trader, and got 10 of the swords back in exchange of the pearls. This story suggests that those who were appointed to officers in Dazai-fu Administrative Office would trade with Tang traders directly, bring the Tang goods to Kyoto, exchange the goods around Kyoto, and go back to Hakata-tsu Port. They also used to travel by water between Yodo-tsu Port and Hakata-tsu Port through the Seto Inland Sea.

Friday, December 05, 2014

The Shift of Tariffing Partners in the 9th Century Japan; from Silla Traders to Tang Traders

In the first half of the 9th century, Silla traders dominated the trade in the East Asia. They built Silla communities along the Yellow Sea seashores, and did the intermediate trade among Southeast Asia, Tang, Silla, and Japan. Their main character was Jang Bogo, who was based in Cheonghae Garrison on Wando Island and Chishan Bay in the Shandong Peninsula, and became strong and powerful through the triangular trade among Tang, Silla and Japan. He helped Prince Ujing overthrow King Minae. Ujing successfully became King Sinmu, and his son, King Munseong got married with Jang’s daughter. In 840, Jang dispatched a trade mission to Japan, but was assassinated by King Munseong in 846. Jang’s full activity rather heightened the consciousness of Japanese government against Silla, and it stopped diplomatic relations with Silla in 842. Their trade relations, however, continued. Meanwhile, Tang traders started approaching Japan during the century, and, after the middle of the century, they came to dominate the international trade of Japan, maybe thanks to the fall of Jang Bogo. According to some historical documents; the first appearance of Tang traders in Japan but those among official missions was marked by Zhou Guanghan and Yan Shengze from Yue Province in June, 819, although they came on board a ship of Silla. In the same year, a Tang trader, Zhang Jueji drifted ashore in Dewa Province on the Sea of Japan along with a Silla trader, Wang Cheong. On April the 27th, 820, 20 Tang traders including Li Shaozhen drifted ashore in Dewa Province. In 838, a Tang trader, Chen Daogu, stayed in Koro-kan, a state guesthouse and trading center. In 842, Li Linde brought a monk, Huie. On July the 8th, 847, 47 Tang traders including Zhang Youxin from Ming Province arrived in Japan with some Japanese on board his ship. 53 Tang traders came to Japan in August, 849. In the same year, a Tang citizen, Cui Sheng, was naturalized in Japan. In December, 851, a Tang trader, Zhang Youxin left Dazai-fu for Tang. In August, 852, a Tang trader, Qin Lianghui’s ship arrived at Hakata-tsu Port. In 852, a Japanese priest, Enchin, embarked on the returning ship of Tang traders, Wang Chao, Li Yanxiao, and others. In 858, Enchin returned to Japan on board the ship of Li Yanxiao. Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku (literally, The True Record of Three Reigns of Japan) eventually wrote a milestone article on July the 23rd, 862; “43 Tang traders including Li Yanshao came to Japan. An imperial order was issued to Dazai-fu to allow them to temporarily stay in Japan and to provide them with food and clothes.” That means they were officially admitted as transnational traders between Tang and Japan at last 44years after the first appearance of a Tang trader in Japan. In April, 863, even Prince Shinnyo’s attendants, who had been staying in Tang, returned to Japan on board the ship of a Tang trader, Shan Jingquan. Tang traders’ increasing presence must have been a serious menace against Silla traders. An urgent report from Dazai-fu arrived at the central government on June the 15th, 869, saying, “Silla pirates came on board 2 ships to Hakata-tsu Port, looted the tax silk and cotton of Buzen Province, and fled. Soldiers were dispatched but failed to arrest the pirates.” Distress made traders pirates. Later, some Silla citizens living in and around Dazai-fu were arrested, being suspected of communicating secretly with the pirates.

The Preconditions for the First Uprisings of Japanese Pirates

     First of all, as far as pirates are supposed to be those sailing on the seas, attacking other boats and stealing things from them, there must have been other boats to be attacked and those boats must have been carrying things.  Then, what boats were carrying what things in the Seto Inland Sea in the 9th century?      Things carried officially are comparatively easy to grasp.  As early as in 756, the central government ordered the provincial governments around the Seto Inland Sea to send their tax rice to the capital by rowboat, and added, if the tax rice on a boat was lost, 30% of it should be taxed again to the original taxpayers and 20% to the forwarders according to the order issued in May, 735.      The Japanese ancient centralized bureaucratic government had been established in 645.  They imposed 3 types of taxes: So, tax rice; Yo, labor duties; Cho, tax cloth.  All the taxes were supposed to be carried to Kyoto by Yo itself.  That is, all the taxes were supposed to be carried on taxpayers’ shoulders.      As boat-building skills improved, and navigating skills matured, water transportation might have increased so much as the government could not ignore it within a century.  111 years after the establishment of the tax system, Yo also had become rice, and all the tax rice including Yo came to be carried by rowboat around the Seto Inland Sea. Was private trade nil at the beginning of the Heian period? By no means! The government order in 756 itself implies there had already emerged forwarders fully enough to carry all the tax rice from the Seto Inland Sea provinces presumably between the harvest and the start of the next rainy season of at the longest. According to the order issued in 796, traders from Kaya Port (in today’s Fukuoka Prefecture), Kunisaki Port and Sakato Port (both in today’s Oita Prefecture) had been supposed to get a pass at Dazai-fu and show it at Moji Checkpoint along a narrow channel between Kyushu and Honshu islands on their way to Kyoto. As late as by the year 746, however, some forwarders had come to be found shipping their provincial goods to Kyoto without calling at Moji. In 796, at last, the central government gave up, and approved the traffic deregulation. Traders could now directly sail to Namba, the largest sea port at the mouth of a river from Kyoto to be checked by a provincial officer there. Commercial shipping was not only between the capital and provinces. Before 716, for example, private sailing had been forbidden between Bungo, the easternmost province on Kyushu Island, and Iyo, the westernmost province on Shikoku Island, and there used to be forts on each side to force the rule on traders. An order in 716, however, allowed a ship to sail between the 2 provinces if a higher-ranked nobleman (higher than the 5th in the ranking system at that time) was on board. This was another example of water traffic deregulations. These deregulations imply that even some high-ranked noblemen found their interests in freer water transportation. Rice and provincial goods, such as salt, were indispensable for people’s daily life, but bulky. Weren’t there anything more valuable and handy? There could have been! In 866, some Tang people, Chinese people in today’s sense, were reported to have come all the way to Kyoto with no pass issued in Dazai-fu. There could have been more Tang people with passes. They used to be called trading visitors. What were they trading then? It is worthwhile to notice that in 874, a document tells us, Okami Mii, an officer in Iyo Province, and Taji Yasue, another officer in Bungo Province, were officially sent to Tang to purchase incense and medicine there. Another document tells us that at least Taji came back to Japan on board Tang trader’s ship in 877. Diplomatic relations with Silla had been broken off in 779, and Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty had been stopped in 810. Yet, noblemen’s need for advanced and sophisticated foreign-imported goods was neither broken off nor stopped. The end of official exchange of ministers might have rather encouraged private trading. Now, we find daily necessities such as rice and provincial goods including salt on board. If we are lucky enough, we can find a few valuable foreign-imported goods such as incense aboard. Are we ready to have pirates then? No, not yet. Even Captain Cook could not conduct piracy by himself. He had to have his minions. In other words, the Japanese ancient centralized bureaucratic rule needed to have been loosened enough to supply rowers and as such. Let me introduce 2 Chinese poems composed by Sugawara Michizane, one of the most famous Japanese poets in Japan, to see the supply-side conditions. The two, along with the other 8, are supposed to have been composed in the winter of the year 886. The series of 10 Chinese poems all describe poor people under his ruling as a governor in Sanuki Province, one of the provinces along the Seto Inland Sea, just east to Iyo Province: To whom winter comes faster? To repatriated tramps winter comes faster They don’t have a clan to rely on And are assigned along the names they give But the land granted is too poor Their bodies become thinner and thinner Unless the governor rules them with mercy More and more will certainly take flight To whom winter comes faster? To hired rowers winter comes faster They don’t know how to farm They are hired as a day laborer And have little land to farm They row only to be poorer They don’t mind winds and waves But only hope to be hired everyday In 669, an order was issued to register all the people and cut off bandits and tramps. In 697, an imperial order commanded provincial governors to register people during the winter, and to examine and arrest tramps by September. Those orders suggest that the ruling noblemen at the time were equating tramps with bandits. The noblemen perceived the free movement of ruled people negatively. With their negative perception in mind, we are going to see chronologically in “The First Uprisings of Japanese Pirates” how piracy in Japan started to appear in historical documents and materials, and what actions the authority took against it.