The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (2-2) ——The Enclosure and the Salt Production around the Seto Inland Sea (2)——

It seems that the occupation of the salt pans in Ako was transferred from Tomo Clan to Todai-ji Temple, violently or by mutual consent, sometime in the latter half of the 8th century. What fate did Hata Clan face then? Were they employed by Todai-ji Temple to run the salt pans? Or did they just get pitched out of the salt industry? In the latter case, by Fujiwara Yasunori’s classification, leading piracy might have been their unavoidable choice. The presence of salt pans in the 8th century is supported by other documents. Nihon Koki, for example, has an entry dated November the 14th, 799, which tells us: Bizen Province said, “People in Kojima County have made their living by producing salt, and prepared for Cho and Yo taxes with the salt. The mountains, the wilds, the seashores, and the islands there have been for common use as a rule. Powerful clans and families have come to disturb and deprive the people. The more prosperous the powerful become, the more distressed the poor turn. We beg things to be replaced.” The Emperor ordered, “It is against the public benefit that the powerful intimidate the poor. It must be stopped and never be allowed to happen.”

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (2-1) ——The Enclosure and the Salt Production around the Seto Inland Sea (1)——

From the first half of the 8th century to the latter half of the 9th century, central noble clans and temples enclosed the sea, islands and seashores, and urged large-scale salt production around the Seto Inland Sea. As a result, registered farmers and fishermen were locked out of seashores, and became hobos. In some enclosure cases, the central clans and temples enclosed the sea, islands and seashores to tap rice fields. Daian-ji Temple, for example, enclosed 1.5 square kilometers of land in Kmitsumichi, Mino and Tsudaka Counties, Bicchu Province. Todai-ji Temple enclosed Inano-sho in Kawabe County, Settsu Province. In the other cases, they enclosed the sea, islands and seashores to produce salt in a large scale. Horyu-ji Temple, for instance, enclosed 2 beaches in Inami and Shikama Counties, Harima Province. Gango-ji Temple enclosed Yakishio and Shioya in Asaguchi County, Bicchu Province. Saidai-ji Temple enclosed Shiogiyama in Harima Province and Shioyama in Samukawa County, Sanuki Province. Todai-ji Temple enclosed Shioyama in Ako County, Harima Province, where, as early as in the middle of the 8th century, Tomo Inukai (?-762.10.30), the then Harima Province governor, appointed Hata Oko as a deputy and tried to build salt pans. We can tell by the place-names that they were producing salt there. The Japanese phrase “shio” means salt.

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-4) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (4)——

Whether you believe in Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, which is usually regarded to be more reliable than other documents, or in Riho Oki and Okagami Uragaki, or even if we can’t tell who conspired with whom against who in the incidents, we can clearly see the outcomes. Who was the biggest winner after all the conspiratorial incidents? Fujiwara Mototsune was. He successfully became the premier after Yoshifusa’s death, going over Yoshimi’s head, who had actually died before Yoshifusa’s death, though. Yoshifusa and Mototsune opened a Fujiwara regency regime. Who was the biggest loser then? Tomo Clan were. They were almost exterminated. Who was the second biggest loser? Ki Clan were. They were diminished. Tomo Clan used to guard the imperial palace’s gates in farther ancient times. Ki Clan became powerful, involved in sending soldiers to Korea Peninsula also in farther ancient times. Both clans used to have their footing on Shikoku Island areas along the Seto Inland Sea, and used to enjoy sea traffic authority in the Seto Inland Sea. As a result, some of the fishermen who had been closed out from seashores enclosed by good-family clans and big temples were organized under the both clans as salters or rowers. It is interesting that Otenmon Conspiracy broke out during the first uprisings of the Japanese pirates, and that the piracy ceased within a few years. The young good-family members who were condemned by Fujiwara Yasunori for leading piracy might have belonged to Tomo and Ki Clans. They might have been as violent and cruel as Tomo Yoshio. Thanks to “good” governors such as Yasunori, the piracy became under control, but, after half a century, another young good-family member, Fujiwara Sumitomo, emerged to be a pirate king this time, learning a lesson from the first uprisings.

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-3) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (3)——

Can you tell who conspired with whom against who? Hardly can I. In Riho Oki and Okagami Uragaki’s story, pecking order No.3 and No.4 tried to oust No.2, maybe to get promoted, but failed. Maybe, it was pecking No.2 who tried to….. We have a few more clues: Fujiwara Yoshifusa, pecking order No.1, had been seriously ill from the end of the year 864 to September 865. Fujiwara Mototsune, Yoshifusa’s adopted son, was yet to be in his thirties. Who would be Fujiwara Clan’s leader if Yoshifusa were to die? At the end of the year 864, there was also a whistle-blowing that Minamoto Makoto was planning to revolt with his younger brothers, Toru and Tsutomu. Tomo Yoshio attacked Minamoto Clan counting on the letter. Who on earth composed the letter? At the time of Otenmon Incident, Oyake Taketori was working for Bicchu Province. He had been a low-ranked officer in Wu Hyoe Fu, a kind of the office of the guards. Minamoto Tsutomu supervised the office of the guards before he was later promoted to be the vice-governor in Bicchu Province in January, 866. What a coincidence! In the spring of the year 866, Tomo Yoshio surrounded Minamoto Makoto’s mansion house, claiming that he was just sending messengers. On August the 3rd, 866, as you already know, Oyake Taketori notified that Tomo Yoshio and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to Oten-mon Gate. On the 29th, Oyake Taketori’s daughter was murdered by Ikue Tsuneyama. Even if we can’t tell who conspired with whom against who, we can learn a lesson through those incidents. Blood will have blood. (to be continued)

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-2) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (2)——

Riho Oki (Prince Shigeakira’s Diary) and Okagami Uragaki (The Collection of Notes on Okagami), however, tell us another story. It starts in this way: Fujiwara Yoshimi, the premier’s younger brother, consulted with Tomo Yoshio about throwing out Minamoto Makoto. They told Fujiwara Mototsune, Fujiwara Yoshifusa’s adopted son, to come, and instructed that it was Minamoto Makoto who set Oten-mon Gate on fire. Mototsune was surprised to hear that, and asked them if Yoshifusa knew the story. Yoshimi answered no. Mototsune reported the story to Yoshifusa in haste. Yoshifusa responded that Sa Daijin had rendered meritorious service to the Emperor, and that it was unreasonable to accuse of the crime when it was uncertain whether the story was true or false, and then reported to Emperor Seiwa, “It was I who should be punished first if Sa Daijin were to be punished.” As the Emperor did not know the story, he was greatly surprised. Eventually on August the 3rd, 866, Oyake Taketori notified that Tomo Yoshio and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to the gate. And blah blah blah….. (to be continued)

The Ancient Japanese Good-Family Clans and Piracy (1-1) ——Otenmon Conspiracy (1)——

Fujiwara Yoshifusa (804-872.9.2) and his younger brother, Yoshimi (813/817-867.10.10), were working at central (national?) politics hand in hand from 857, when Yoshifusa was promoted to be Daijo Daijin (a kind of a premier), and Yoshimi Wu Daijin (a kind of the second vice-premier just inferior to Sa Daijin), until Otenmon Conspiracy (or also translated as Otenmon Incident). It is very questionable and mysterious who conspired with whom against who before and during the incident(s). According to Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, however, the incident started in this way: On March the 10th, Oten-mon Gate went up in flames. On the 22nd, great purification prayers were held in front of Kaisho-mon Gate, and Great Heart Sutra was recited in Sufuku-ji Temple. On July the 6th, an imperial delegate was sent to Ise Shrine, and oblations were offered to shrines in Nankai-do Region. On August the 3rd, 866, out of the blue, Oyake Taketori, a substitute the-rank-and-file officer in Bicchu Province, notified that Tomo Yoshio, a kind of the third vice-premier, and his son, Nakatsune, had set fire to the gate. On the 29th, a daughter of Oyake Taketori was murdered, and Ikue Tsuneyama, Tomo Yoshio’s attendant, was tortured as a suspect. On the 30th, Tomo Kiyonawa was tortured as an instigator. On September the 22nd, Tomo Yoshio, Tomo Nakatsune, Ki Toyoshiro, Tomo Akizane, and Tomo Kiyotsuna were convicted of arson, and sentenced to banishment. Ki Natsui, Tomo Kawao, Tomo Natsukage, Tomo Huyumitsu, Ki Harumichi, Tomo Takayoshi, K Takeki, and Tomo Harunori were convicted of implication, and also sentenced to exile. On October the 25th, Ikue Tsuneyama and Urabe Tanushi confessed having assaulted Oyake Taketpri and killed his daughter. Riho Oki (Prince Shigeakira’s Diary) and Okagami Uragaki (The Collection of Notes on Okagami), however, tell us another story: (to be continued)

The Two Classes in Ancient Japanese Pirate Societies

Professor Miyoshi Kiyotsura (?-918.12.7) composed a critical biography on Fujiwara Yasunori (825-895.4.21). Yasunori governed his provinces wisely. First, in Bizen and Bicchu Provinces in succession, he suppressed pirates. Later, in Dewa Province, he managed to put down Emishi rebellions. Yasunori was reported by Kiyotsura to have categorized pirates into two classes. First, “Most leaders are not local registered people, but dropouts (from the hierarchic center, the Henan-Kyo Capital). Some are young members of good family who have pursued means of support. Some others are officers’ valets who have married local women. They have made the remote provinces their hometowns.” The other class was made up with “those who don’t have atrocious minds but have been goaded by hunger and frost.” Yasunori’s angle on the social polarization among pirates might have enabled his good governance and suppression over rebellions. Fujiwara Sumitomo, the first pirate king in Ancient Japan, obviously belonged to the first class.

Excavated Ceramics Bring us Up to the 9th-and-10th-Century Sino-Japanese Trading

Imported Tang goods used to include ceramics, textiles, incense, medicine, colors, books, writing utensils and etc. We can, however, hardy find historical records which show us how those imported goods were actually exchanged in the 9th and 10th centuries. How were they exchanged with Tang traders at Hakata-tsu Port? How were they eventually carried to the Henan-Kyo City? We can only rely on excavated ceramics to answer those questions. Let me list up the excavated Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain along the Seto Inland Sea. They will be shown in the order of the number of Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain excavated, the name of the excavations, and the locations of the excavations. Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain may have been highly precious luxuries. Only a few of them have been found in each of just about 45% excavations in Japan. 6 Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain were found in Atago Excavations in Buzen Province (Ogura-kita Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 2 were found in Tokuriki Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 1 was found in Nagano A Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 52 pieces were found in Terada Excavations in Buzen (Ogura-minami Ward, Kita-kyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture). 22 ceramics Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain were found in Saiwaigi Excavations in Buzen ( Miyako Town, Miyako County, Fukuoka Prefecture). 5 were found in Akine Excavations in Nagato Province (Akine Town, Shimonoseki City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 1 was found in Kokubunji Excavations in Nagato (Chofu Town, Shimonoseki-City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 4 were found in Chusenshi Excavations in Nagato (Chusenshi Crossroads, Yamaguchi City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 6 were found in Kokufu Excavations in Nagato (Kokuga, Bofu City, Yamaguchi Prefecture). 4 were found in Kokubunniji Excavations in Aki Province (Saijo Town, Higashi-hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Okiura Excavations in Aki (Kamagari Town, Kure City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 4 were found in Kusado-sengen Excavations in Bingo Province (Ashida River, Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Kokubu Excavations in Bingo (Moto Town, Fuchu City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 2 were found in Zabu Excavations in Bingo (Tsunogo Town, Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture). 1 was found in Agata-yada Excavations in Iyo Province (Imabari City, Ehime Prefecture). 1 was found in Kokubu Excavations in Sanuki Province (Fuchu Town, Sakaide City, Kagawa Prefecture). East of Bingo Province, we still have Bicchu, Bizen, and Harima Provinces along the Seto Inland Sea in Sanyo-do Region, and Awaji Province in Nankai-do Region. Yet, no Yue Province ceramic of celadon porcelain has been found in 16 other excavations in those areas. Officially speaking, the central government used to have the monopoly of purchasing Tang goods first, so highly precious luxuries such as Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain should have been purchased by the central government, and been carried to the Heian-Kyo City first. Some of them, of course, might have been awarded to provincial governments, provincial temples, and provincial nunneries. If everything had been done accordingly, then the distribution of Yue Province ceramics of celadon porcelain in excavations should have been more equal. The westward biased distribution suggests that there were people who were trading such luxuries with Tang traders, disregarding the central government, in the Western Seto Inland Sea after the first uprisings of Japanese pirates in the middle of the 9th century.

Trading Scenes form Konjaku Monogatari

Konjaku Monogatari was edited sometime in the early 12th century, composed of Buddhism and other stories from India, China, and Japan. Its Vol.26’s 16th story is about Sadashige of Chinzei (today’s Kyushu), and the story shows us how exchanges between local officers and Tang traders were actually carried out. The story’s main character is Sadashige of Chikuzen Province (a part of today’s Fukuoka Prefecture), where Dazai-fu Administrative Office and Hakata-tsu Port were located. This Sadashige is presumed to be an actual figure, Hata Sadashige, who was so powerful that he was even mentioned in the entry dated September the 19th, 1009, of the journal kept by Fujiwara Michinaga, the clan leader of strong Fujiwara families and practically the top government officer at the time. Konjaku Monogatari writes, “When Shigesada finished the subordinate officer in Dazai-fu, he laid 30 nice swords in pledge, and took about 6 to 7 thousand of Tang goods from a Tang trader to give Fujiwara Yorimichi (Michinaga’s eldest son) and other personal acquaintances.” On his way back to Hakata, he exchanged his suits as an officer with pearls at Yodo-tsu Port. At Hakata-tsu Port, he visited the Tang trader, and got 10 of the swords back in exchange of the pearls. This story suggests that those who were appointed to officers in Dazai-fu Administrative Office would trade with Tang traders directly, bring the Tang goods to Kyoto, exchange the goods around Kyoto, and go back to Hakata-tsu Port. They also used to travel by water between Yodo-tsu Port and Hakata-tsu Port through the Seto Inland Sea.

The Shift of Tariffing Partners in the 9th Century Japan; from Silla Traders to Tang Traders

In the first half of the 9th century, Silla traders dominated the trade in the East Asia. They built Silla communities along the Yellow Sea seashores, and did the intermediate trade among Southeast Asia, Tang, Silla, and Japan. Their main character was Jang Bogo, who was based in Cheonghae Garrison on Wando Island and Chishan Bay in the Shandong Peninsula, and became strong and powerful through the triangular trade among Tang, Silla and Japan. He helped Prince Ujing overthrow King Minae. Ujing successfully became King Sinmu, and his son, King Munseong got married with Jang’s daughter. In 840, Jang dispatched a trade mission to Japan, but was assassinated by King Munseong in 846. Jang’s full activity rather heightened the consciousness of Japanese government against Silla, and it stopped diplomatic relations with Silla in 842. Their trade relations, however, continued. Meanwhile, Tang traders started approaching Japan during the century, and, after the middle of the century, they came to dominate the international trade of Japan, maybe thanks to the fall of Jang Bogo. According to some historical documents; the first appearance of Tang traders in Japan but those among official missions was marked by Zhou Guanghan and Yan Shengze from Yue Province in June, 819, although they came on board a ship of Silla. In the same year, a Tang trader, Zhang Jueji drifted ashore in Dewa Province on the Sea of Japan along with a Silla trader, Wang Cheong. On April the 27th, 820, 20 Tang traders including Li Shaozhen drifted ashore in Dewa Province. In 838, a Tang trader, Chen Daogu, stayed in Koro-kan, a state guesthouse and trading center. In 842, Li Linde brought a monk, Huie. On July the 8th, 847, 47 Tang traders including Zhang Youxin from Ming Province arrived in Japan with some Japanese on board his ship. 53 Tang traders came to Japan in August, 849. In the same year, a Tang citizen, Cui Sheng, was naturalized in Japan. In December, 851, a Tang trader, Zhang Youxin left Dazai-fu for Tang. In August, 852, a Tang trader, Qin Lianghui’s ship arrived at Hakata-tsu Port. In 852, a Japanese priest, Enchin, embarked on the returning ship of Tang traders, Wang Chao, Li Yanxiao, and others. In 858, Enchin returned to Japan on board the ship of Li Yanxiao. Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku (literally, The True Record of Three Reigns of Japan) eventually wrote a milestone article on July the 23rd, 862; “43 Tang traders including Li Yanshao came to Japan. An imperial order was issued to Dazai-fu to allow them to temporarily stay in Japan and to provide them with food and clothes.” That means they were officially admitted as transnational traders between Tang and Japan at last 44years after the first appearance of a Tang trader in Japan. In April, 863, even Prince Shinnyo’s attendants, who had been staying in Tang, returned to Japan on board the ship of a Tang trader, Shan Jingquan. Tang traders’ increasing presence must have been a serious menace against Silla traders. An urgent report from Dazai-fu arrived at the central government on June the 15th, 869, saying, “Silla pirates came on board 2 ships to Hakata-tsu Port, looted the tax silk and cotton of Buzen Province, and fled. Soldiers were dispatched but failed to arrest the pirates.” Distress made traders pirates. Later, some Silla citizens living in and around Dazai-fu were arrested, being suspected of communicating secretly with the pirates.

The Preconditions for the First Uprisings of Japanese Pirates

     First of all, as far as pirates are supposed to be those sailing on the seas, attacking other boats and stealing things from them, there must have been other boats to be attacked and those boats must have been carrying things.  Then, what boats were carrying what things in the Seto Inland Sea in the 9th century?      Things carried officially are comparatively easy to grasp.  As early as in 756, the central government ordered the provincial governments around the Seto Inland Sea to send their tax rice to the capital by rowboat, and added, if the tax rice on a boat was lost, 30% of it should be taxed again to the original taxpayers and 20% to the forwarders according to the order issued in May, 735.      The Japanese ancient centralized bureaucratic government had been established in 645.  They imposed 3 types of taxes: So, tax rice; Yo, labor duties; Cho, tax cloth.  All the taxes were supposed to be carried to Kyoto by Yo itself.  That is, all the taxes were supposed to be carried on taxpayers’ shoulders.      As boat-building skills improved, and navigating skills matured, water transportation might have increased so much as the government could not ignore it within a century.  111 years after the establishment of the tax system, Yo also had become rice, and all the tax rice including Yo came to be carried by rowboat around the Seto Inland Sea. Was private trade nil at the beginning of the Heian period? By no means! The government order in 756 itself implies there had already emerged forwarders fully enough to carry all the tax rice from the Seto Inland Sea provinces presumably between the harvest and the start of the next rainy season of at the longest. According to the order issued in 796, traders from Kaya Port (in today’s Fukuoka Prefecture), Kunisaki Port and Sakato Port (both in today’s Oita Prefecture) had been supposed to get a pass at Dazai-fu and show it at Moji Checkpoint along a narrow channel between Kyushu and Honshu islands on their way to Kyoto. As late as by the year 746, however, some forwarders had come to be found shipping their provincial goods to Kyoto without calling at Moji. In 796, at last, the central government gave up, and approved the traffic deregulation. Traders could now directly sail to Namba, the largest sea port at the mouth of a river from Kyoto to be checked by a provincial officer there. Commercial shipping was not only between the capital and provinces. Before 716, for example, private sailing had been forbidden between Bungo, the easternmost province on Kyushu Island, and Iyo, the westernmost province on Shikoku Island, and there used to be forts on each side to force the rule on traders. An order in 716, however, allowed a ship to sail between the 2 provinces if a higher-ranked nobleman (higher than the 5th in the ranking system at that time) was on board. This was another example of water traffic deregulations. These deregulations imply that even some high-ranked noblemen found their interests in freer water transportation. Rice and provincial goods, such as salt, were indispensable for people’s daily life, but bulky. Weren’t there anything more valuable and handy? There could have been! In 866, some Tang people, Chinese people in today’s sense, were reported to have come all the way to Kyoto with no pass issued in Dazai-fu. There could have been more Tang people with passes. They used to be called trading visitors. What were they trading then? It is worthwhile to notice that in 874, a document tells us, Okami Mii, an officer in Iyo Province, and Taji Yasue, another officer in Bungo Province, were officially sent to Tang to purchase incense and medicine there. Another document tells us that at least Taji came back to Japan on board Tang trader’s ship in 877. Diplomatic relations with Silla had been broken off in 779, and Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty had been stopped in 810. Yet, noblemen’s need for advanced and sophisticated foreign-imported goods was neither broken off nor stopped. The end of official exchange of ministers might have rather encouraged private trading. Now, we find daily necessities such as rice and provincial goods including salt on board. If we are lucky enough, we can find a few valuable foreign-imported goods such as incense aboard. Are we ready to have pirates then? No, not yet. Even Captain Cook could not conduct piracy by himself. He had to have his minions. In other words, the Japanese ancient centralized bureaucratic rule needed to have been loosened enough to supply rowers and as such. Let me introduce 2 Chinese poems composed by Sugawara Michizane, one of the most famous Japanese poets in Japan, to see the supply-side conditions. The two, along with the other 8, are supposed to have been composed in the winter of the year 886. The series of 10 Chinese poems all describe poor people under his ruling as a governor in Sanuki Province, one of the provinces along the Seto Inland Sea, just east to Iyo Province: To whom winter comes faster? To repatriated tramps winter comes faster They don’t have a clan to rely on And are assigned along the names they give But the land granted is too poor Their bodies become thinner and thinner Unless the governor rules them with mercy More and more will certainly take flight To whom winter comes faster? To hired rowers winter comes faster They don’t know how to farm They are hired as a day laborer And have little land to farm They row only to be poorer They don’t mind winds and waves But only hope to be hired everyday In 669, an order was issued to register all the people and cut off bandits and tramps. In 697, an imperial order commanded provincial governors to register people during the winter, and to examine and arrest tramps by September. Those orders suggest that the ruling noblemen at the time were equating tramps with bandits. The noblemen perceived the free movement of ruled people negatively. With their negative perception in mind, we are going to see chronologically in “The First Uprisings of Japanese Pirates” how piracy in Japan started to appear in historical documents and materials, and what actions the authority took against it.

The Japanese Pirates in the Warring States Period

Prologue ----- A New Point of View on Studying Pirate History What Pirates Are I saw the movie Pirates of the Caribbean. As it was popular, the cinema was full of children with their parents. I thought, however, few of them knew the essential difference between those pirates on the screen and those who used to be called Wokou (Japanese pirates in 13-16 centuries). Japanese pirates boarded on smaller fast boats, which used to be called sekibune or hayafune, (medium-sized raiding boats), and kohaya (small raiding boats) in Japanese those days, rather than on Tall ships. In addition, above all, they were not the objects of punishment like those on the screens who were chased by governments’ fleets, arrested, and hung. I’d like to note 2 public characters the Japanese pirates had on this issue. 1) They controlled various checkpoints in important ports, which used to be called fudaura in Japanese, along the sea, rivers, and lakes. They collected some taxes, such as sekiyaku (checkpoint fees), uwanoriryo (on-board fees), and as such. 2) They were navies who handle war boats skillfully, and sometimes took part in armies of feudal lords or s. In this sense, they are called sui-gun (navy) technically in Japanese. As for 1), pirates put up some checkpoints forcibly in the medieval period, but they were sanctioned overtly in their society. Levying checkpoint fees and on-board fees were claimed rightfully. The matter, however, impressed sea travelers absurdly since the pirates the travelers happened to encounter in the sea called themselves seki or sekimori, checkpoints or keepers of the checkpoints, and demanded fees forcibly. There were several kinds of fees checkpoints levied. Hobetsusen, a sail tax, was imposed according to how big each ship was. Dabetsusen, a freight tax, was imposed on goods. Uwanoriryo, an on-board fee, was imposed as a piloting fee. Uwanori, to board on, means to hire a pirate to board on a ship, and that saved the ship from being attacked by his fellow pirates. In the 27th year of Oei, in 1420, a Korean ambassador, Song Huikyeong, came to Japan as a return call for an envoy sent by the then shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimochi. He kept a diary, Nosong-dang Ilbon Heangnok, and wrote, “We hired Tozoku (pirates in the East Seto Inland Sea) near Kamogari (today’s Kure City, Hiroshima Prefecture) so as not to be attacked by Saizoku (pirates in the West Seto Inland Sea).” That clearly shows they had uwanori system already at the time. As time comes down, the system became an official one in the Seto Inland Sea, which was utilized even by s. As for 2), I’d like to emphasize one point. The word pirates sounds as if they had acted in a free and hard-boiled manner as mercenaries on the sea. They were, on the contrary, respectable warriors on the sea, who rallied round to answer the call-outs by shogun Ashikaga or by s to get a fief or a local magistrate job. In that sense, they should never be regarded as unlawful people. Cannot See the Wood for the Trees The area of study on the history of pirates has accumulated a number of profound researches after Meiji Era. These years, Amino Yoshihiko argued “Sea Faring People,” and Katsumata Shizuo alleged “Samurai without their Lord.” Their arguments were widely noticed, but, after them, it seems that researches have been heavily inclined toward those to investigate specific conditions. For instance, inquiring into the difference between the sea world and the land world is rather unproductive. In the Seto Inland Sea, the sea and the land are tightly connected, and some pirates worked as local magistrates. The sea was a highway anyone could use. The Seto Inland Sea is a main artery, and the surrounding coastal areas of Chugoku and Shikoku should be recognized as a closely related region. I am going to describe the activities of pirates in this region. Of course, there used to be active pirates in Kyushu, Kumano, Shima, Chita, and etc., and some s organized pirates as their navy in those regions, other than in the Seto Inland Sea. Here I concentrate on the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea because when Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and/or Ieyasu, heroes, were going to unify the nation, organizing the pirates in the Seto Inland Sea became of critical importance. Pirates integrated the coastal areas along the Seto Inland Sea reducing frictions there. As the large part of the Western Inland Sea is included in Iyo, influential pirates such as Murakami clan regarded Kono Clan, Iyo’s guardian, as their lord, and they were regarded as such even Mori Motonari wrote, “This time we send troops to Iyo in return, because Mori Takamoto and all of us were saved by Kurushima Clan.” (Mori Clan’s archives) He recognized that his clan’s victory over Sue Clan in the Battle of Itsuku-shima Island in the 24th year of Tenbun, in 1555, owed to Kurushima Clan’s support, who was one of the main vassals of Kono Clan. That was why Mori Clan sent troops to Iyo to help Kono Clan in return. Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki smashed Nobunaga’s navy in the Battle of Kidu-gawa estuary, and successfully sent in provisions into Osaka Hongan-ji Temple in the 4th year of Tensho (in 1576). He gave thanks to Kono Michinao for Murakami Clan’s participating in the battle. Kono Clan used to be regarded as the top of pirates’ hierarchy during the Age of Provincial Wars. That kind of recognition was still seen even during Tensho years. The history of pirates has been studied by investigating the conditions of powerful pirate clans, such as Murakami Clan, during the Age of Provincial Wars, when they were most active. I is more important that Kono Clan and their distant relative, Mori Clan (practically Kobayakawa Takakage) were the pirates s, or public authorities who ruled the Seto Inland Sea at the end of the Age of Provincial Wars. To make contrast with those s in East Japan who mainly fight land battles, I use the concept “pirate ”. The reason is that those pirate s were maintaining their domains by securing the mastery of the sea exploiting their pirates’ high maneuverability and well-honed mercenary wits. For instance, Kono Michinao could defend their state against the relentless attack by Chosokabe Motochika, a in Tosa, thanks to their navy’s superiority. Would-be national leaders who were conquering Western states were inevitably to organize their own navy. For example, Kuki Yoshitaka entered wars under Nobunaga: first against Ise-Nagashima Uprising by the True Pure Land sect in the second year of Tensho (in 1574), second in another battle of Kidu-gawa estuary in the 6th year of Tensho (in 1578), third against the Hanakuma Castle in Settsu in the 8th year of Tensho (in 1580), and etc. He established himself as a pirate serving under Nobunaga. Under Toyotomi regime, Kono Clan was ruined, and Murakami Clan was moved to Kyushu. Toyotomi’s s occupied Iyo and Awaji, and organized local pirates as their navies, which were sent to Korea. Those s included Todo Takatora, Kato Yoshiaki, and Wakisaka Yasuharu. At this stage of pirates’ history, utilizing big battleships with cannons and lots of matchlock guns, which used to be called atake-bune in Japanese, and financing the armaments have become more indispensable than each pirate’s combat power. The end of pirates lords’ high days, when they sailed their sekibune or kohaya (medium-sized and small raiding boats) tactically to enemy ships and burned them down with horoku-bi-ya, earthenware explosives, had come. Some vassals of Murakami Clan left service to the clan, and served Toyotomi’s clans. However, Kuki Clan, with their building techniques of battleships, atake-bune, was taken into national leaders’ confidence. Some historians call Murakani Takeyoshi “a on the sea”, “a pirate ”, or even “a unified regime on the sea”, who extended his power even over the East Seto Inland Sea, but that is overestimation. Although Murakami Clan enjoyed independency, they placed themselves as Kono Clan’s senior vassal. They didn’t dream of acquiring a status to work under shogun or national leader’s direct orders. Preceding studies have analyzed each pirate, but didn’t research pirates’ power politics in coastal areas of Chugoku and Shikoku regions influenced by the behaviors of pirate s. They couldn’t see the wood for the trees. Pirate s during the Age of Provincial Wars I pay attention to Kono Clan, especially Kono Michinao (? – 1587), who was the last head of the clan. Kono Clan was a major pirate , but sank into obscurity in the history in the shadow of Mori Clan, one of the most powerful s. Let me introduce Kono Clan’s profile. Some of successive heads of the clan at the time were invalid or short-lived (Michinao, for example, is said to have died at the age of 24), and the clan was having power games for its headship. As a result, even local scholars have regarded the clan as a minor small and weak . However, after all, Kono Clan was a medieval distinguished family who ruled Iyo. Kono Clan’s hongan (the surname’s place) was Kono, Kazahaya Couty, Iyo State (today’s Matsuyama City, Ehime Prefecture). The clan produced Kono Michinobu, who played an important role in Gen-Pei Battle (battles between Minamoto Clan and Taira Clan), and who also was a grandfather of Ippen Chishin, a founder of the Ji Sect; also Kono Michiari, who was reputed as a brave during the attack by Yuan Dynasty; and etc. In Chugoku and Shikoku regions, Kono Clan was the only guardian lord who could maintain their territory even after Ouchi Clan in Suo State was ruined. Moreover, in the end of the Age of Provincial Wars, Kono Clan organized powerful pirate clans such as Nojima Murakami Clan and Kurushima Murakami Clan as senior vassals, ruled Iyo State, and had power over the Seto Inland Sea areas. Kono Clan’s distinguished character can be proved with the fact that they were given such high-ranking honors. For instance, the heads of Kono Clan during the Age of Provincial Wars were allowed to use the yakata title. The title was permitted to those such as Ashikaga Clan, who were treated as highly as guardian lords, clans who had been guardian clans for generations and who could attain important positions in the shogunate, and clans who rendered distinguished service to the shogunate. They also joined in shoban-shu, a member of suite or retinue, a second-high position next to shogun aide who can attend a banquet in shogun’s palace and who can accompany shogun when he visited other families. They were also given a public position, sakyo-no-daibu, equal to sishiki-ke who provided a chief officer in judicature /prosecution/police. Recent studies have shed light on the fact that Muromachi Shogunate’s honoring hierarchy deeply penetrated into local samurai societies, and was meaningful for s in justifying their authority in the Age of Provincial Wars. Kono Clan’s social status and authority were very high compared with those of Chosokabe Clan, who were at war with Kono Clan. Let me introduce Kono Clan in Mino State, in today’s Gifu Prefecture. Inaba Yoshimichi, who had another name Iyo-no-kami Ittetsu and whose son, Sadamichi made the first lord of Usuki Domain in Bungo State (in a part of today’s Oita Prefecture); Hitotsuyanagi Naosue (the lord of Karuminishi Castle in Mino State) and Hitotsuyanagi Naomori (the first lord of Saijo Domain in Iyo State); and some other powerful lords of manors in Mino State were in search of their roots in Kono Clan, a noble family. Recently, Kono Clan in Kai State (in today’s Yamanashi Prefecture) was brought to light, who were descendants of Kono Clan’s branch family, Yoshu Family, moved to Kai State, served Takeda Clan, and made a direct retainer of Tokugawa Shogun. As our studies progress, the expansion of the clan will be revealed. Recent excavations show that Kono Clan’s main castle, Yuduki-jo Castle, was an advanced castle on a low hill surrounded in a plain with massive-scale inner moat, outer moat, and earthen ramparts. I was shocked when I made a field trip to Yuduki-jo Castle to find the remnants of its large-scale citadel excavated and repaired, and to observe a large quantity of relics including high-quality imported ceramics with a markedly international character. I realized that the image of Kono Clan, which had been built hitherto on surviving texts, and which is hence much biased, should be eradicated. It is also important that Yuduki-jo Castle’s surrounding areas attracted travelers and pilgrims nationwide. Its castle town, Dogo, has a nationwide famous hot spring, and has many well-known religious institutions, such as Ishite-ji Temple, which is connected to Kono Clan and the 51st of the 88 Kwannon Temples in Shikoku region; Hogon-ji Temple, where Ippen Shonin, the founder of Ji-shu Sect of Buddhism, was born; and Isaniwa Shrine, which is one of the oldest shrines that were listed in a law enforced in 967, and which was removed due to the construction of Yuduki-jo Castle. The Survival of Pirate s Hideyoshi came into contact with the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea as late as 1577, the fifth year of Tensho, when he was ordered to conquer Harima by his lord Oda Nopbunaga. Since then, he kept being committed in the areas. He made series of expeditions to Western states, and attacked Saika in Kii State, Shikoku region, and Kyushu region between the thirteenth and the fifteenth year of Tensho (1585-1587). Farther more, he made dispatched troops to Korea between the twentieth year of Tensho and the third year of Keicho (1592-1598). Through those military operations, he deeply committed himself to the pirate society from the time he was a chief servant of Oda Clan till his death after ruling Japan. These days, popular views on Toyotomi regime have tendency to see Hideyoshi’s unification as the result of regional integration by s. Even in high schools, they learn that regional torrents toward the integration and unification opened up the road to the national unification by Hideyoshi and enabled him to maneuver the unification sometimes even without military operations. I have been against the view for years. I would rather like to pay attention to the way pirate s, such as Kono Clan and Mori Clan, made critical decisions to face the unprecedented crises after years of combats and diplomatic negotiations against Hideyoshi. The pirate s who respected authority in Muromatchi period, such as Ashikaga Shogunate and guardian lords in each state. Hideyoshi, meanwhile, advocated to take over Nobunaga’s reform. The both sides had such different outlook on the nation. History is always woven with those kinds of rivalries. The national unification Hideyoshi pursued after taking over Nobunaga’s lines involved developing capable bureaucrats with the new sense of values in the new era, and excluding the incapable bloodline elites from Muromachi period. That was the same with the process of assuming control over the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea. I am arguing as follows: First, to describe the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea from various points of view. Second, to reveal the fact how shrewdly and cannily Hideyoshi maneuvered the vassals of pirate s mainly during Nobunaga’s last years. Third, to follow the process of the power shift from Kono Clan to Mori Clan in the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea during and after the end of the Age of Provincial Wars. Forth, to point out the relationship between Toyotomi Regime’s so-called “prohibitions against pirates”, which were ordered several times covering larger territories each time, and Kono Clan’s extinction and Mori Clan’s succeeding reorganization of Murakami Clans. Fifth, to see the birth of the early modern nation from the maritime point of view by paying attention to Ieyasu’s establishing surveillance network against pirates. Chapter 1 The Historical Currents in the Seto Inland Sea Land Battles & Naval Battles What did Toyotomi Hideyoshi (here I sometimes use the surname even when I mention him before he was awarded the surname the Imperial Court in the 14th year of Tensho, 1586) think of the pirates society which even influence the movements of the warlords in Western Japan? He was born in Owari State (in a part of today’s Aichi Prefecture), and experienced only the societies in Eastern Japan. That must have limited his ability to organize pirates in the Seto Inland Sea. They fought land battles in Eastern Japan essentially, while navies were indispensable in Western Japan. In the West, castles used to be located by rivers, lakes, or the sea. Even when one managed to capture a castle in a day battle, he might lose the castle to his enemy pirates’ night attack in some cases. I pay attention to Buke Mandai Santo Kaizoku-ke Ikusa Nikki (The Diary of Militant Generations of Pirate Families in Three Islands), which was written by Mishina Heiemon, a vassal of Ogasawara Tadasane, the lord of Kokura Domain in Buzen State in the third year of Kanbun, or in 1663. The book describes the navy, Kawanouchi People, who were led by Kodama Narikata, a vassal of Mori Clan, from the Age of Provincial Wars till Shoku-Ho Period (the abbreviation of Oda and Toyotomi Period). The book has as many as 50 articles of Kawachi Keigo Oboegaki (Kawanouchi’s Memoranda of Guarding), one of the articles is a rule in marching: When Mori Army marches on land, Kawauchi People should sail on the sea. We divide a fleet of 250 into 5 groups. Following the schedule, and adapting our progress to that of the army, we sail for 12-20km. According to the order, we have contacts with the army. As army progresses 20km a day while navy progresses 60km a day, we have three days of time. When the navy and the army have contacts, the army use fire on a hill which faces the sea. And then we send a boat to get information. This is a detailed rule in Mori Army/Navy that the army and the navy should progress simultaneously. The simultaneous progress of the army and the navy could be dated back to the Age of Provincial Wars, and that seems unique in the Seto Inland Sea areas. Not to mention Hideyoshi, even his lord Oda Nobunaga didn’t have his own naval organization, which could be called Owari Navy. Nobunaga forced Kuki Clan, a pirate warlord in Shima State, to obey him, but Hideyoshi had no authority to command them to fight in the Seto Inland Sea. He had to maneuver pirates in the Seto Inland Searthenware-shelled explosives by his own. East and West We often take the Seto Inland Sea as one region, but it didn’t have one history in the Age of Provincial Wars. There had been two historical trends. One was a trend around Kinai region, while the other is a trend in a region which had a close relation with the Northern and the Eastern areas in Kyushu region. We can divide the Seto Inland Sea areas into 2 sub-groups. The western borderlands of the first areas are Bicchu State in today’s Chugoku region and Nii County in Iyo State in today’s Shikoku region. The second areas lie west to the borderlands. The first areas are called the East Seto Inland Sea areas, and the second is called the West Seto Inland Sea areas, respectively. The East Seto Inland Sea areas have two large seaports, Hyogo (in today’s Kobe City) in Settsu State and Sakai (in today’s Sakai City) in Izumi State, which used to be most well-known Japanese seaports in the world. Hosokawa Clan, which produced Shogunate aides, wielded power in those two seaports, and enjoyed close relationships with the cities. Ships and boats from the two ports go through the Kitan Straits or through the Akashi Strait first. Around those straits, there used to be powerful pirates on the watch for those vessels. Around the Kitan Straits, Manabe Clan and Tan’nowa Clan in Izumi State and Kan Clan in Awaji were well-known, and, around the Akashi Strait, Ishii Clan in today’s Akashi City was famous. In the West Seto Inland Sea areas, Onomichi in Bingo State and Itsukushima in Aki State used to be famous as ports of call, and Tomo-no-ura, or the Tomo Inlet, (in today’s Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture) in Bingo State were especially important since it was prosperous as a junction between the East and West Seto Inland Sea areas. The port is located at the rear end of an inlet at the southern tip of the peninsular which juts out into the Sea of Hiuchi-nada. It is a good port between a hill and Taiga Island, a tied-island which is attached to the hill with a sandbar. The inlet is serene and a port town had been located from the ancient time there. A sea current runs into the Bungo Channel eastward into the Sea of Iyo-nada according to the tide. Another sea current runs into the Kitan Straits westward into the Sea of Harima-nada according to another tide. The Tomo Inlet is located at the meeting point of the two sea currents, and ships and boats utilizing the currents used to gather here waiting for a next current. It used to be a node of distribution network in Western Japan, and attracted information quickly as well. Tomo-no-ura used to be a port town deeply related to Muromachi Shogunate, or Ashikaga Clan. For example, at the very start of the shogunate, Ashikaga Takauji, its founder, stopped at Komatsu-dera Temple here on his way to strike back to Kyoto from Kyushu region. Ashikaga Tadafuyu, Takauji’s son, came down here to Ogajima Castle as a governor of Chugoku region. Down during the Age of Provincial Wars, the 10th shogun, Ashikaga Yoshiki (later renamed Yoshitane) was removed and expelled by Hosokawa Masamoto, but returned back to Kyoto from today’s Yamaguchi Prefecture to be re-appointed as a shogunate under the support of Ouchi Yoshioki. He called at the port on his way back to Kyoto. The 15th shogunate, Ashikaga Yoshiaki exiled himself here, appointed Mori Clan as a vice-shogunate, opened “Tomo Shogunate” as a base of anti-Nobunaga forces, and ordered warlords in Western Japan to work for his return to Kyoto. These examples tell us that Tomo-no-ura used to attract national attention at the beginning of Muromachi Era and at the end of the Age of Provincial Wars. Inland Sea Lane In the latter half of the Age of Provincial Wars, Murakami Clan gained power with their bases on Geiyo Archipelago in the middle of the West Seto Inland Sea areas. Murakami Clan is composed of 3 sub-clans; Nojima Murakami, Kurushima Murakami, and In’noshima Murakami. They used to be called Santo Murakami (Three-Islands Murakami) or Santo Murakami Navy. Here, I sometimes call Nojima Murakami, the head sub-clan of the three, just Murakami. Murakami Clan was subordinate to Kono Clan, the Guardian of Iyo State, and established a good relationship with Mori Clan. The Clan extended their power over the East Seto Inland Sea areas, and assumed control of Shiwaku Islands, Hitsuishi-jima Island and Yo-shima Island in today’s Sakaide City, Hon-jima Island, Ushi-jima Island, and Hiro-shima Island in today’s Marugame City, Takami-shima Island and Sanagi-shima Island in today’s Tadotsu Town, and etc. all in Sanuki State, or in today’s Kanagawa Prefecture. Shiwaku Islands were located in the center of Bisan Archipelago between the Sea of Harima-nada and the Sea of Hiuchi-nada. They attracted many ships and boats, and provided boatmen to transport travelers and goods. Murakami Clan came to control Shiwaku people, and became a master who organized and controlled local territorial pirates at difficult straits in the Seto Inland Sea. Against Murakami Clan’s extending its power, Oda Nobunaga guaranteed Shiwaku ships’ shipping to Sakai in the document by Shiwaku Guardhouse dated March 26, 1577, in the seventh year of Tensho. The document shows Shiwaku Islands were placed under the influence of Oda Nobunaga. Until around 1584, the 12th year of Tensho, however, Murakami Clan committed themselves to the islands. The islands seem to have been under the influence of the both sides actually. The Seto Inland Sea has The Sea of Harima-nada, Bisan Archipelago, the Sea of Hiuchi-nada, Geiyo Archipelago, the Sea of Itsuki-nada, Boyo Archipelago, the Sea of Iyo-nada, and the Sea of Suo-nada from east to west. It has “nada” (a rough sea with strong winds and waves, and with rapid currents, where sailing is difficult) and archipelagos alternately. Between nada, there are straits with big ranges of tides. The islands near those straits were located with important ports, and with sea castles of pirates as well. Nojima Castle, Nojima Murakai Clan’s main castle and stronghold, for example, controlled Hanaguri Strait, Kojin Strait, Funaori Strait. Those are rapid straits with 10-not (about 19 km/h) currents whirling at fastest. Kurushima Strait has as rapid as 12-not current at the rising tide, which causes famous Hachiman-uzu, or Hachiman Vortex. Ships needed local pilots, and were easily captured from Kurushima Castle, Kurushima Murakai Clan’s main castle and stronghold. These two areas have many marine accidents even today, and are known as dangerous sea areas with poor views, with narrow widths to sail, and with rapid currents. The Seto Inland Sea Lane used to be thought to have started during Edo Period, but, today, it can date back to before the Age of Provincial Wars. The lane used to have 2 coastal routes and 3 offshore routes. Aki coastal route sailed along Sanyo coast, and Iyo coastal route along Shikoku coast. The offshore routes sailed from the west through the Sea of Itsuki-nada, Hanaguri Strait, Yuge Strait, and the Sea of Bingo-nada; through The Sea of Itsuki-nada, Funaori Strait, Miyako Strait, the Sea of Hiuchi-nada, and the Sea of Bingo-nada; through the Sea of Itsuki-nada, Kurushima Strait, and the Sea of Bingo-nada. The Excavation of Sea Castles Geiyo Archipelago, lying between the Seas of Hiuchi-nada and Itsuki-nada, used to be Murakami Clan’s strongholds, and their sea castles were densely located there. The studies of sea castles have progressed these years, stimulated with the outcomes of the studies of medieval castles and supported by the accumulation of excavation data of sea castles themselves. The data point out the variations of the castles’ locations and structures, reveal their features to have numerous pits on shore reefs, and show their characteristic relics with imported porcelains etc. The study of the pits on shore reefs is attracting a considerable attention these days. The pits can be found only in the 20 castles in those areas controlled by Nojima Murakami and Kurushima Murakami Clans. The pits can be divided into independent pits, column pits and rank pits. The column pits lined at right angles to the seashores at regular intervals in a single line, while the rank pits run in parallel with the seashores in a row or two. The independent pits and the column pits are supposed to have worked to support mooring posts. However, how the rank pits were used is not specified yet. The castles and fortresses with those pits are distributed along the offshore routes. The sea castles here have 3 characteristic features. First, each castle is small in size, and even main castles are in the size of fortresses. They had simple structures, sometimes even without forts or moats which used to be popular parts with mountain castles in the Age of Provincial Wars. Second, when a small island was fortified, water supplies were secured on the opposite shore. Third, the castles might have been distributed under the consideration of the clan’s networks and sea routes. The conceptualization of the sea castle distribution will be certainly developed with the progress of the study of pirates. Recently, the site of Nojima Castle, which is supposed to be Nojima Murakami Clan’s headquarters, was excavated and researched by Imabari City Educational Board. They found remains of residences and a smithy. The discovery was reported on Asahi (the Ehime edition) and Ehime newspapers published on February 12, 2011 and on February 17, 2011 respectively. Nojima Island today is an uninhabited island about 850 meters around located in the strait between Oshima and Hakatajima Islands in Imabari City. Taizakijima Island, about 260 meters around, is located south to Nojima Island. The width of the waterway between the two islands is about 70 meters at full tide, and about 20 meters at low tide. The whole land of the both islands is Nojima Murakami Clan’s castle, and functioned as their sea castle from the latter half of the 14th Century till 16th Century, during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts and the Age of Provincial Wars. According to Imabari City Educational Board, two remains of residences were found at South-East Keep in the south of Nojima Island, and at the Third Keep in the west of the island. In South-East Keep, more than 10 remains of pillar pits with a diameter of 40 to 50 centimeters were found about 20 centimeters underground in the area of about 8 meters long from south to north and 4 meters wide from east to west. In Third Keep, a lot of remains of pillar pits and granite foundation stones were found about 40 centimeters underground in the area of about 8 meters long from south to north and 4 meters wide from east to west. They were lined in order in a rectangle in the both cases. A remain of a smithy with a diameter of about 1 meter was found about 30 centimeters underground near Third Keep in the north-west of the island. An unglazed earthen ventilation pipe between the bellows and furnace was found, too. The pipe is with a diameter of about 10 centimeters and length of about 10 centimeters, and is called “haguchi” in Japanese. Pieces of fired scrap iron and earth were found in chunks, iron flakes scattered around in the process of forging were left. They suggest that iron weapons were made and mended in the castle. Among the foundation stones in Third Keep, many pieces of big pots of Bizen Ceramics were excavated. They can be restored into huge pots with a diameter of 50 to 60 centimeters and in the height of about 1 meter. These discoveries are causing us to change the current view of Nojima Castle. Usually, Nojikma Castle has been regarded as a fortress in rapid currents which was utilized in wartime or in an emergency only. People might have lived at Miyakubo in Oshima. It has been handed down that there used to be Miyakubo Castle or Koga-yashiki (Koga Residence) on the hills in Miyakubo. Having water supply, Miyakubo might have worked with Nojima jointly as a castle. However small Nojima Island may be, it had buildings, and many daily earthen vessels were found in the reclaimed ground in its south. Those findings suggest that people spent their daily lives in the island. Moreover, numerous unglazed earthenware small plates in the remains of main buildings. The findings imply that formal samurai ceremonies similar with those carried out in the castles of warlords might have also been held there. Imported ceramics and Chinese coins were reported to have been excavated in 1938. Nojima Castle can be recognized as an independent castle which functioned by itself. Additional characteristic feature is that many sea castles were placed with sea checkpoints side by side. Many main sea castles along offshore routes, such as Kaminoseki Castle in Suo State, In’noshima Murakami Clan’s Mikasaki Castle in Bingo State along Aki coastal route, and Nojima Murakami Clan’s Nii-Oshima Castle in Iyo State along Iyo coastal route worked as sea checkpoints as well even after “prohibitions against pirates” issued in the 16th year of Tensho, or in 1588. That leads us to suppose there probably had been more sea castles with sea checkpoints affixed. A Mobile Base Manabe Clan in Izumi State, a local pirate who was organized into Nobunaga’s Navy, gives us a good example to understand how the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea changed. Their surname has its origin in Manabe Island in Oda County, Bichu State (in today’s Kasaoka City, Okayama Prefecture). They gained a certain social status in the Seto Inland Sea as a vassal of Hosokawa Clan, a guardian of Bichu State in Muromachi Period. Eventually, they gained ground even in Izumi State, and Nii and Uma Counties in Iyo State, where there used to be Hosokawa Clan’s branch possessions. Manabe Sadaharu, who was later called Sin’nyu-sai, was the head of the clan during Shoku-Ho Era and a founder of Manabe Clan in Wakayama, one of chief vassals of the Wakayama Clan. He was included in the entries of Meishin-Den (Biographies of Excellent Vassals) of “The History of Nanki Tokugawa”, a collection of the Wakayama Clan’s historical sources. Manabe Sadaharu was recognized in The Lord of Manabe Shin’nyu’s Thumbnail Biography as a descendant of Manabe Shiro and Goro brothers, who had shot Kahara Taro and Jiro brothers, who were popular characters in The Tale of Heike. It is also recorded that Sadanari’s 6th ancestor moved from Manabe Island to Tan’nowa in Izumi State (to today’s Misaki Town, Osaka Prefecture). Manabe-yama, a place name around a round tumulus with a moat around it, is all that is left to tell where once the clan lived. The document continues, “They established Manabe Checkpoint in Sen-shu, and those ships sailing from Kyushu or Shikoku toward the Capital had to pay sail taxes.” They might have imposed sail taxes at Manabe Checkpoint in Tan’nowa on those ships leaving from Kyushu region or Shikoku region, probably sailing off the Tosa coast, and passing Kitan Straits. In other words, Manabe Clan was conducting piracy in Kitan Straits. Meanwhile, Hosokawa Clan in Izumi State fell and Miyoshi Clan rose, and Manabe Clan followed Miyoshi Clan instead. Manabe Sadayuki, Sadanari’s grandfather, fought for Miyoshi Clan in Shariji Battle in Settsu State in July, the 16th year of Tensho, or in 1547, and made the very first thrust among 800 samurais into the enemy lines. In the 11th year of Eiroku, or in 1568, Nobunaga entered Kyoto, and Izumi samurais including Matsuura Clan, an active guardian there, capitulated to him. Nobunaga antagonized Osaka Hongan-ji Temple, and paid attention to Manabe Clan needing to impose a blockade across Osaka Bay. According to The Biographies of Excellent Vassals, Manabe Sadatomo, Sadanari’s father, was stationed at Otsu Castle in Izumi State (in today’s Izumi-Otsu City, Osaka Prefecture), and guarding mouths of rivers in Osaka. He was given lands about half as much as those of daimyo, salaries for 1,000 men, and 600 kg of monthly gunpowder. According to Biography of Lord Nobunaga, which was written by Ota Gyuichi, one of Nobunaga’s arrow shooters, and is believed to be one of the reliable biographies of Nobunaga, Manabe Sadatomo was deployed along with other Izumi samurais such as Numa Clan at a strategic point in Sumiyoshi in Settsu State in May, in the 4th year of Tensho. He was in charge of maritime defense. Manabe Clan was deployed as defense against Osaka Hongan-ji Temple. According to a document dated June 18 issued by Nobunaga, Sadatomo, together with Numa Den’nai and etc., was ordered to guard in Osaka Bay to cut off supply routes to Osaka Hongan-ji Temple. Other documents such as Hineno Document at the time, shows Sadatomo was carrying out naval blockades. Sadatomo was killed in the Battle of Kidu-gawa estuary in July together with Numa Clan and etc. As we have seen above, Manabe Clan moved their base from Manabe Island, Bichu State, to Tan’nowa, and to Otsu, both in Izumi State. They carried out military actions such as naval blockades under the orders of supreme powers such as guardians, warlords, or national leaders. They also established sea checkpoints and imposed sail taxes. Obviously, they were acting as a typical pirate people in the pirate society in the Seto Inland Sea. The point worthy of attention is that they are based on naval transfers, and that they moved their bases according to the changes of the political surroundings in land. That is quite different from the behaviors of land samurais who tended to fight for their lands at the risk of their own lives. Murakami Clans, a champion in the Seto Inland Sea, for another example, might not have minded to change their residences because they originally had had plural strongholds in plural states. Chapter 1 The Rise and Fall of Pirates Naval Battles and Guns The fact that Manabe Clan was given about 600 kg of gunpowder a month suggests that they had considerable number of guns and that they were actually using the guns, and also implies how Nobunaga Navies were organized. These years have witnessed a significant progress of the study over medieval weapons, as they came to be argued from the view point of the political history too. Guns, representative weapons in the Age of Provincial Wars, have been argued over how they were introduced into Japan. There are 3 main types of arguments. The first argument is the most popular belief that guns were introduced by Portuguese who drifted ashore on Tanega-shima Island in the 12th year of Tensho, or in 1543. Against the belief, Mr. Takehisa Udagawa examined remains of guns and related documents, and presented the second argument that guns’ introduction through Tanegas-shima Island is just a case and that Wako brought guns which they had used in Southeast Asia. The third argument was offered by Mr. Shosuke Murai, who had elaborately and extensively researched historical documents. It was Wang Zhi, a major figure among Post-Wako, who were mainly Chinese smugglers, and his Chinese junk that brought Portuguese with guns used in Southeast Asia to Tanega-shima Island. Those arguments are very interesting and suggest there used to be varieties of routes to introduce guns to Ryukyu and even to the coasts of Japanese Sea mediated by Wako. We are going to read a document which tells us, even a quarter century before the famous Nagashino Battle, in which Oda Nobunaga, with his 3000 guns, overpowered then famous Takeda’s cavalry, the usage of guns was introduced in Inland Sea. Bairin Shuryu, a monk in Tofuku-ji Temple in Kyoto, wrote about a sea battle with guns in his diary on September 19, in the 19th year of Tenmon, or in 1450. Around noon, when they were sailing off Hibi, Bizen (today’s Tamano City, Okayama), their ship was approached by a pirate ship. Negotiations were carried between the two ships, and failed. A battle was started. Pirates shot arrows, and the ship Bairin on board fought back with guns. The pirates ended up with many injured. Guns with a range of about 500 meters had an advantage over arrows with a range of about 380 meters. Especially in naval battles where longer ranges mattered, guns must have been employed swiftly. s in Western Japan who organized navies exploited guns eagerly. Otomo Clan’s big gun, Kuni Kuzushi (namely State Destroyer) was a well-known example. Later in naval battles during the Japanese Invasion of Korea, or the Imjin War, cannons and guns were key weapons. Even Yi Sun-shin (1545-1598), a famous Korean navy admiral, was shot to death during the Battle of Noryang, the last naval battle at the end of the war. A Drastic Change in Naval Battles About 2 decades after the introduction of guns to Japan, Nobunaga was facing the pressing need to gain naval supremacy in Inland Sea to fight against Mori Clan. Nobunaga heavily lost to navies of Mori and Kono in the Battle of Kidu-gawa estuary in July, 1576, the 4th year of Tensho. In June and November, 1578, the 6th year of Tensho, however, fought against navies of Mori Clan and Soga people again, which ended as his overwhelming victory. We are going to compare two entries about the two naval battles from Biography of Lord Nobunaga. “They stopped our ships, and shot many earthenware explosives to burn the ships down. We were heavily outnumbered, and lost veteran samurais such as Manabe Sadatomo, Numa Iga, Numa Den’nai. Western forces won a victory in the battle, shipped military provisions into Osaka Hongan-ji Temple, and sailed their forces back to the western states.” “On June 26, in the 6th year of Tensho, our ships sailed out to the Sea of Kumano-ura, sailed to Osaka. They rowed numerous boats out of Soga, Tan’nowa and as such against our big ships off Tan’nowa. They shot arrows and guns, and pressed attacks on us from all sides. Kuki Yoshitaka, who had decorated the 7 ships like mountains, fought restrictively first, waited for the enemy boats to come closer, fired big guns all at once, and destroyed many of the enemy boats. Afterward, the enemy boats could hardly find ways to approach our ships, and we could easily sail to Sakai on July 17. “On November 6, more than 600 ships and boats from western states advanced to Kidu areas. Kuki Yoshitaka intercepted the enemy ships and boats. They besieged our ships, sailing southward, and fought a sea battle from 8 in the morning till around noon. Kuki seemed to be having a hard battle at first, but, having many big guns in the 6 ships, waited for the enemy ships and boats to come closer, and fired the guns to the enemy flagship to strike it down. They became panicked and couldn’t approach ours any more. Kuki finally drove hundreds of the enemy ships and boats into Kidu Bay, and all the audience praised Kuki Yoshitaka for his military exploits.” The first quotation describes how the naval battle in July, 1576 was fought. In the battle, the navies of Mori and Kono Clans, whose de facto main force was Murakami Clan, surrounded Oda navy, threw in many earthenware explosives, and burnt down Oda’s ships and boats. The tactics to cut off each enemy ship surrounding with small fast boats and to attack with earthenware explosives used to be common in Inland Sea battles. An earthenware explosive was a round fire bomb. The bomb has back powder and iron pieces or lead balls covered with earthenware, and popularly used from the Age of Provincial Wars till Shoku-Ho Era. Later, even small rockets with 3 plumes fired with guns, cannons, or wooden cylinders came to be employed. The explosive powder in their tips exploded when they stroke ships. Those navies who were killed in the battle, including Manabe Clan, were samurais in Izumi, and had strongholds along Osaka Bay, including Otsu in Izumi. They were severely beaten by the navies of Mori and Kono Clans, whose de facto main force was Murakami Clan, who was a champion in Inland Sea at the time, and could not stop the enemy’s shipping military provisions into Osaka Hongan-ji Temple. After the first battle, Nobunaga ordered Kuki Clan, a pirate people in Shima (in today’s Mie Prefecture), to build armored ships and to sail them to Osaka Bay via the Sea of Kumano-nada. The latter quotation tells us that, in June, the armored ships encountered the besieging enemy navies from Soka and Tan’nowa shooting arrows and guns, and defeated them with big guns. The big guns showed their power in November as well to defeat the navies of Mori and Kono Clans. Just 2 years witnessed a big change in navy battles; from throwing in earthenware explosive to shooting big guns. The armored ships were not only armored with iron plates to shield the enemy attacks of shooting arrows and guns. The Correspondences of the Society of Jesus in Japan also reported that the ships were equipped with 3 cannons. We may well call them battleships with heavy guns. Kono Mitsunobu, a painter of the Kono school, one of the most famous schools of Japanese painting, painted Nagoya Castle in Hizen on a byobu with 6 panels in detail years later. The castle was a base to sally forth to Korean peninsula at the time. The byobu represents armored ships as well with two-storied or three-storied donjons on top of them. Those donjons might have been spaces for a commander, and symbols of authority and power. The ships had sails, but was usually driven with oars. Small-sized armored ships were said to have 50 oars, while big-sizes to have more than 150 oars. They were equivalent to ships with 75-300 of net tonnage, and were equipped with heavy guns, and were crenelated. The structure of the armored ships suggests that they could not sail so fast. They went to a battle with small fast boats guarding them. In terms of modern navy battles, an armored ship fought as a battleship, a medium-sized boat as a cruiser, and a small boat as a destroyer. Navy battles were definitely changing, and surpassing in firepower was playing more decisive roles than maneuverability. On land, Shoku-Ho castles with high stone walls, a donjon and towers were getting in all their glory. Big ships with a high-rise building on top of them and with a lot of guns to shoot from there at enemy ships and boats are opening a new era on the sea as well. Pirate people had accumulated their own tactics as sea fighters, but lacked capital reserves to prepare themselves to face the new era with big ships and firepower. This is the background why the champion in Inland Sea changed dramatically from pirate people such as Murakami Clan to war lords under Toyotomi Clan with the capital strength abundant.

The First Uprisings of Japanese Pirates

We can find the term “pirate” in official documents for the first time in 838. As for official documents, I, here, rely on Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku (literally, The True Record of Three Reigns of Japan). Emperor Uda ordered Fujiwara Tokihira, Sugawara Michizane, Okura Yoshiyuki, and Mimune Masahira to compile it, and the history text covers the years from August the 27th, 858 to August the 26th, 887, which corresponds to three imperial reigns: Emperor Seiwa, Emperor Yozei, and Emperor Koko. The compilation was completed in 901. In this essay of mine, years will be shown in the Gregorian calendar, but months and dates in the Japanese historical lunar calendar. On February the 9th, 838, an order was issued to the provincial governors in Kinai Region to severely accuse bandits who openly set fire and killed people. The region surrounds Kyoto, the capital, and includes Yamashiro Province, Yamato Province, Kawachi Province, Settsu Province and Izumi Province. On the next day, February the 10th ( March the 9th in the Gregorian calendar), the provincial governors in Sanyo Region and Nankai Region were ordered to arrest pirates. The order mentioned exactly just pirates excluding bandits, and this is the first appearance of the word “pirate” in official documents in Japan. Two days later, February the 12th, imperial guardsmen were detached around Kyoto to chase and arrest bandits. That implies pirates are only a part of major social unrest, and the central government left it to provincial governors to chase and arrest pirates. After these actions, the central authorities tried to chase and arrest bandits in 849 and in 857, but we can find no order against pirates until 862. Japanese pirates made their major debut on May the 20th, 862. One document says: “These days, pirates frequently form groups, kill and rob travelers of varieties of goods no matter they are government officers or civilians. According to the Bizen provincial government, they were robbed of ‘80 koku’ of tax rice by pirates at last. They were sending the tax rice to Kyoto. They loaded the rice on a boat, and forwarded the boat with pullers tugging it with ropes. They, however, encountered pirates, were robbed of everything, and got 11 of their men killed. The provincial governors of Harima, Bizen, Bicchu, Bingo, Aki, Suo, Nagato, Kii, Awaji, Awa, Sanuki, Iyo, and Tosa were promptly ordered to send their men to chase the pirates.” It is not clear how much rice “80 koku” represented at the time in Japan. In today’s sense, 1 koku = 10 to = 100 sho = 1,000 go, and 1 go of rice weighs about 150 grams. That makes “80 koku” 12 tons. However, metrology differs from a time to another, and from a country to another, say in China. They might have been using a different metrology. I also wonder if they could load 12 tons of rice on a boat in Japan in the 9th century. However, the robbery of that much tax rice must have been such a shocking news that the central government issued an order for chasing and arresting pirates for the first time in the Japanese history. The document also suggests that the number of pirates who had become organized was increasing, and their piracy was becoming more common and persistent. After the year 862, orders for chasing and arresting pirates were issued in 865, in 866, in 867, and in 869 almost in succession. These years is considered to have witnessed the first uprisings of Japanese pirates. On April the 11th, 866, for example, the central government ordered the provincial governors of Settsu, Izumi, Harima, Bizen, Bingo, Aki, Suo, Nagato, Kii, Awaji, Awa, Sanuki, Iyo, and Tosa to chase and arrest pirates, and said, “On May the 20th, 862, and on June the 28th, 865, the documents which tells the provincial governors to chase and arrest pirates were issued. Yet, even today, we hear that groups of pirates are coming about and never stop plundering and looting. This is due to the situation that provincial governors have not worked hard enough to liquidate pirates. If a provincial governor does not investigate and arrest pirates, and leave them committing father atrocities, it will be the governor who will be charged. He cannot be pardoned. The number of those arrested should be reported in a written form.” This document clearly describes that the order issued in 862 was the very start of those for chasing and arresting pirates. It demands to report the number of pirates arrested, and that implies provincial governors had been given authority to decide who were pirates and who were not. We will see how giving this kind of authority actually worked later. The orders issued in 862, in 865, and in 866 didn’t do their works, and the central government issued another in 867, saying, “These years, we have ordered and warned provincial governors to chase and arrest pirates, and to investigate and police wicked and wild people. Yet, we hear ferocious criminals come about, and robberies break out. All the travelers by water and by land are afraid of being attacked. This is really due to the governors’ dereliction of duty to liquidate them. It is legislated to form a joint surety group of 5 households, choose a head of it, and have them watch one another.” The order did not stop here and continued delivering detailed instructions, “In sordid places such as markets, ports, and arterials, maneuvers should be employed, detectives should be placed, bounties should be offered, and pardons should be dangled to leave no place for wicked and wild people to stay.” The contents of this order may imply 2 facts. First, the central government considered vagrancy as a breeding ground of piracy. Second, some provincial governors might have accumulated certain experience on dealing with pirates. The accumulation, in turn, might have made it possible for the central government to share the effective practices. On November the 10th, 867, another instruction was added, and concerned provincial governors were ordered not only to “send their men” but also to “engage captive northern aliens.” In ancient Japan, offering labor was one of the 3 taxes, and the regular army used to be composed of the conscripted manhood. The latter additional instruction, however, allowed those provincial governors to organize captive northern aliens as a kind of foreign mercenary legion besides the regular army. The point is that the provincial governors were allowed to organize semiofficial armies. Let me, however, move north-eastward for a while and explain who captive northern aliens were. In 708, Dewa County was established in Echigo Province, the northernmost province at the time of Japan along the Sea of Japan. The county was, then, promoted to be Dewa Province in 712. Around that time, Dewa Fort was established around at latitude 38 degrees north. In 733, it was reestablished as Akita Castle around at latitude 39 degrees north. Thus, in the 8th century, the ancient Japanese central government invaded northward step by step. In the process, a lot of northern aliens, Emishi, either were captured or surrendered, and some of them were sent to “inland” provinces. It is not clear yet why some of them were sent west-southward into “inland” Japan, but I infer that the policy was operated for economic and military reasons. In ancient time, Japan introduced Chinese and Korean advanced technology by naturalizing those who had evacuated from the continent. This experience might have led the government into the policy of transferring captive northern aliens to every province to introduce their skills to breed horses and to make good use of them especially in battlefields. Northern aliens were said to be better at mounted fights, and their single-edged swords were more effective than double-edged ones which used to be used among inland Japanese soldiers. Emishi’s single-edged swords are said to be prototypes of Japanese medieval swords known as “katana.” In provinces around the Seto Inland Sea, the calculated population of the captive northern aliens were 312 in Harima, 18 in Bizen, 12 in Bicchu, 41 in Sanuki, and 83 in Iyo. The calculation of numbers is based on the livings paid to the aliens by provincial governments, so the numbers should be interpreted households. It is also philologically confirmed that some Emishi were sent to the other provinces in the area too, although we don’t have such documents that will help calculate their numbers. As orders had been repeatedly issued since 862, detailed instructions had been added. The orders and instructions might have worked. After 869, pirate-related articles cannot be found for about a decade. On July the 5th, 869, in Sanuki Province, two men and two women were arrested as pirates. An imperial order was issued to execute the men observing laws, while the women were let off exceptionally. The first uprisings of Japanese pirates subsided that way. Did the societies around the Seto Inland Sea go back to peace as they used to be before the pirate disturbances? To answer the question, we should carefully examine the following document dated October the 10th, 883. “An imperial order was given to Bizen Province to spare 20,000 bunches of the provincial governor’s official rice for loans, and to have their interest applied to the pays for 224 anti-pirate soldiers. Previously, the governor had reported that the province had many peninsulas and islands where pirates could gather, that neither the officials nor civilians could easily face them down, that the pirates often killed people or looted them of fortune, and that many travelers were harmed. The governor continued to request the permission to select 224 jobless men with guts, to build quarters for them at strategic points, to supply arms and boats to them, and to have them defend in emergency. His request to apply loan interest to the pays was granted.” The document arouses some questions. Who were those hobos with guts? Where did they learn how to use arms and maneuver boats in such an archipelago with rapid straits? How had they earned their livings before they were hired as anti-pirate soldiers? The chances are high they had been pirates themselves. What happened then after hiring those ex-pirates as anti-pirate soldiers? Another document dated December the 23rd, 885, shows a typical case. The article says, “Yama Yoshinao and Hata Harusada, both officially hired men in Kamitsumi County, Bizen Province, killed in a fight Sogabe Hidenao, Takerube Akio and others, men in Utari County, Sanuki Province. Sir Minamoto, the lieutenant governor, proclaimed his innocence, so that Yoshinao was hanged as a principal and Harusada received a sentence of three-year penal servitude as an accessory.” This kind of articles suggest violate struggles across provinces became persistent, and even higher-ranked officials sent from the central government could not control those hired for provincial governments. Suffering from heavy taxes, some farmers escaped from their registered land, and became hobos in another province. Some fishers lost their livings and became hobos as powerful families enclosed seashores for salt production and other industrial purposes. Pirate resources were plentiful. Although the first uprises of Japanese pirates seemed to have died down because of the suppression and maneuvers by provincial governments, the ancient societies around the Seto Inland Sea were getting themselves ready to have sea samurais or even pirate lords such as Clan Murakami in medieval Japan.

Japanese Pirates in the Beginning of the Heian Period [2-7]

The document dated October the 10th, 883, arouses some questions. Who were those hobos with guts? Where did they learn how to use arms and maneuver boats in such an archipelago with rapid straits? How had they earned their livings before they were hired as anti-pirate soldiers? The chances are high they had been pirates themselves. What happened then after hiring those ex-pirates as anti-pirate soldiers? Another document dated December the 23rd, 885, shows a typical case. The article says, “Yama Yoshinao and Hata Harusada, both officially hired men in Kamitsumi County, Bizen Province, killed in a fight Sogabe Hidenao, Takerube Akio and others, men in Utari County, Sanuki Province. Sir Minamoto, the lieutenant governor, proclaimed his innocence, so that Yoshinao was hanged as a principal and Harusada received a sentence of three-year penal servitude as an accessory.” This kind of articles suggest violate struggles across provinces became persistent, and even higher ranked officials sent from the central government could not control those hired for provincial governments. Suffering from heavy taxes, some farmers escaped from their registered land, and became hobos in another province. Some fishers lost their livings and became hobos as powerful families enclosed seashores for salt production and other industrial purposes. Pirate resources were plentiful. Although the first uprises of Japanese pirates seemed to have died down because of the suppression and maneuvers by provincial governments, the ancient societies around the Seto Inland Sea were getting themselves ready to have sea samurais, or even pirate lords such as Clan Murakami, in medieval Japan.

Singapore School Trip, 2014