For Daimyo Smugglers; It All Started with Silver (2)

     In the 16th century, for Japanese missions to Ming, silver was the means of payment for necessities of life during their stay in Ming.  They had to anchor and wait in Hang-zhou Bay for months before they were allowed even just to sail into Ningbo Port.  During those months, they had to buy food and daily necessities at Aoshan or Dinghai in Zhoushan Island with their silver.

     The silver found at Miyahara enabled the Sagara Clan to send their own “mission” to Ming with an old out-of-date tally, although it failed as a mission without enough certification only to turn to be a smuggler.  That type of localization of originally national central missions to Ming was started successfully by the Ouchi Clan.  Then how did the Ouchi Clan gained their silver as the capital of trading?

     The Iwami Silver mine was developed in 1527.  The Ouchi Clan was ruling the area then, and Hakata merchants might have financially supported the development.  However, technically speaking, it was Mishima Seiemon (?-?) who developed the silver mine.  He brought 3 engineers, Yoshida Mitsuemon (?-?), Yoshida Tozaemon (?-?), and Obeni Magoemon (?-?) from Sagi Copper Mine in Izumo Province to open the mine.

     Seiemon and Oda Toemon (?-?), an agent of a Hakata merchant, Kamiya Jutei (?-?), brought rice and coins to purchase silver ores, which were taken away somewhere else at first.  To where?  We have 2 interesting records in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.

     On January the 10th, 1528, Bag Gyeson and others were arrested for secretly refining lead ores containing silver at Hwang Yunbich’s house in Seoul.  On August the 2nd, 1539, Yu Seojong, a local official in Jeonju, Jeola Province, was arrested because he had secretly bought lead ores containing silver from Japan, refined at home, and taught the skill to some Japanese people.

For Daimyo Smugglers; It All Started with Silver (1)

     In 1546, Sagara Yoshishige (1489-1546) wrote a letter dated July the 12th to his adopted-son, Haruhiro (1513-1555).

     “This must be really a good omen.  Tens of thousands of good signs.  So valuable!  I had silver ores shown to an engineer, Doun.  He said the ores were better than those which were mined at Ikuno, Tajima Province.  I am more than satisfied.  Silver ores are rarely found in Japan, yet some are found at our time in our province.  It is just beyond our luck.  You should carefully imagine how greatly we are blessed with everything, and should, needless to say, try having our family thrive.  Last year, an imperial messenger visited us.  It was beyond our expectations.  It did look good to other clans.  It is obvious that we have got an extraordinary luck full of wonder.  I told the engineer to hurry, and he replied immediately that he understood it.

     “I still attach another sheet to tell it was at Miyahara on July the 6th in 1546 that the silver ores were found.  You should understand my intention, and should never lose the information.  The sheet of the record should be kept for the future.

     “I am waiting for another good news.

     “With best regards,

     “July the 12th,

     “Yoshishige”

     Another historic document tells us that Yoshishige actually got “another good news” that the ores were refined into about 100 grams of silver on July the 18th.

      To thank the divine protection that the clan found the silver mine, Haruhiro renewed thereby shrines.

     Now, you can easily understand how happy they felt on finding silver ores.

Sulfur and the Otomo Clan (3)

     The second list in 1383, of course, included Yufuin, under which 9 villages were added as a supplementary note; Namiyanagi, Shukuri, Tsukahara, Aragane, Amama, Araki, Yamasaki, Ishimatsu, and Sadatsune.

     Shukuri, Tsukahara, Araki, Yamasaki, Ishimatsu, and Sadatsune all lie in Yufuin Valley.  Aragane and Amama are further north-west upstream of Tsukahara, and the road through the 3 villages leads to Moji over a mountain pass via Ajimu and Usa in Buzen Province.  The increase of the number of villages in the list might mean the strengthening direct control of the Otomo Clan over the area as well as the better knowledge of the area.

     During those 2 decades, in 1364, Otomo Ujitoki (?-1368) was fighting for the Northern Court against the Southern Court.  In 1374, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408) strictly ordered Shimazu Ujihisa (1328-1387) to offer sulfur.  Both of them were fighting for the Northern Court, and Yoshimitsu might have given the Otomo Clan the same order.  In 1379 and in 1380, Prince Kaneyoshi (1329-1383), a commander of chief in the Southern Court, offered sulfur to Ming.  In 1383, Otomo Chikashige (?-1418) was fighting for the Northern Court against the Southern Court and his elder brother, Ujitsugu (?-1401).  And, in 1392, Yoshimitsu finally dissolved the Southern Court, and unified the two courts.

     China pulled a large amount of sulfur from Japan.  Japanese national hegemons at the time pushed a large quantity of sulfur to China to obtain political gains, certain statuses in East Asia Tribute System, and to obtains certain economic gains, trade margins.  The push worked as pulls on Japanese local hegemons.  The local hegemons tried to procure sulfur from volcanoes in their domains.  Thus, the exportation and production of sulfur became institutionalized and structured as a munition industry, whether the concerned local people realized the transformation process or not.

Sulfur and the Otomo Clan (2)

     The first list in 1364 included, oddly enough, a mountainous valley, Yufuin, along with other rich paddy field areas and port towns.  Under the Yufuin entry, 3 villages were added as a supplementary note; Namiyanagi, Shukuri, and Tsukahara.

     Namiyanagi lies north upstream of Yufuin Valley at the west foot of Mt. Yufu-dake.  The mountain is at an altitude of 1583 meters.  Tsukahara is further north-west upstream in the highlands surrounded with Mt. Yufu-dake, Mt. Tsurumi-dake (1374 meters), and Mt. Garan-dake (1045 meters).  The 3 mountains are active volcanoes.  Especially Mt. Garan-dake emits gasses and vapor even today, and also known as Mt. Io, literally Mt. Sulfur.  You can find natural crystalized sulfur around the crater.

Sulfur and the Otomo Clan (1)

     The Otomo Clan fell at the end of the Warring State Period, and their records and documents have not been preserved well as the Shimazu Clan’s have.  We should make speculation from their scattered records and documents about where and how they procured their sulfur.

     The Otomo Clan moved from Eastern Japan to Bungo Province at the end of the 13th century.  We can find 2 documents left which imply how the clan’s control over sulfur progressed.  The 2 documents are the lists of the territories and the businesses which were under the direct control of the clan, or, more precisely, of the head family of the clan.  One document was recorded under Otomo Ujitoki (?-1368) in 1364, another was recorded under his second son, Chikayo (?-1418), in 1383.  There are listed the family’s estate, surrounding territories, important ports and stages, etc.

Sulfur and the Shimazu Clan (5)

      Shimazu Yoshihiro (1535-1619) presented 90 kilograms of sulfur to Fukushima Masanori (1561-1624) in some year.

     Shimazu Iehisa (1576-1638) presented 600 kilograms of sulfur and other gifts to Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616) in 1609.  Ieyasu had won the Battle of Seki-ga-hara in 1600, and had been appointed as a shogun in 1603.  Iehisa also presented 3 tons of sulfur to Fukushima Masanori (1561-1624), in 1617, 2 years after the Toyotomi Clan had been destroyed by Ieyasu.  Masanori was one of the best generals and also one of the most powerful daimyos at the time.

     On July the 21st in some year, Ieyasu wrote a thank-you letter to Iehisa for 1.2 tons of sulfur.

     On December the 18th in some year, Ieyasu wrote another thank-you letter to Iehisa for 300 kilograms of sulfur.

     On February the 7th in some year, Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604-1651), the 3rd shogun reigning 1623-1651, wrote a thank-you letter to Iehisa for sulfur and other gifts.

     We should be terrified if we had political leaders who are pleased to be presented with pure plutonium 239.

Sulfur and the Shimazu Clan (4)

      Shuryu (?-?), one of the chief traders in missions to Ming in 1477 and in 1484, wrote to 2 vassals of the Shimazu Clan on September the 29th, 1474:

     “As I have not had a particular topic, I have not written to you for long.  It has been against my will.  However, as a mission to Ming was ordered now, I have to visit you next spring.  Although it is an official task for me, I have to ask you to take care of everything.

     “As for the task, an official order letter to procure sulfur was already issued to your clan.  Although you were ordered to transport the sulfur to Hirado in the letter, as the mission will sail off your province, it should be kept at Bo-no-tsu Port.  I will tell you details.  I am looking forward to seeing you.”

     It seems that the profession of the exportation of sulfur as munitions had been established and structured.

     Later, even at the end of the Warring State Period and at the beginning of the Edo Period, sulfur was still important, and the Shimazu Clan presented sulfur to people of importance at the time as gifts.

Sulfur and the Shimazu Clan (3)

      In 1424, Ino Sadatsura (?-1455) was appointed one of managers of the Muromachi Shogunate.  His job was to regulate foreign relations including procuring tribute, or export products.

     On September the 11th, 1431, he wrote a letter to Shimazu Tadakuni (1403-1470) on behalf of Ashikaga Yoshinori (1394-1441, reigning 1428-1441), the 6th shogun, who restored the shogunate from the mess after the death of the powerful 3rd shogun, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408, reigning 1368-1394).

     “Here I pass down the order to you that you should prepare 90 tons of good sulfur, and should transport it without delay.”

     In 1434, the foreign shipment office was established within the shogunate government, and Sadatsura was appointed to be its first manager.  The military production and exportation of sulfur was further institutionalized.

Sulfur and the Shimazu Clan (2)

     As the export of sulfur to China, which used to be called tribute or offering though, expanded, manufacturing sulfur turned to be a military industry.

     On various occasions, the Shimazu Clan offered, presented, exported, and maybe smuggled their sulfur from Io-shima Island and other active volcanos in their domain.  Let’s pick up some instances from written historical documents.

     On February the 28, 1374, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), the 3rd shogun of the Muromachi Shogunate, wrote to Shimazu Ujihisa (1328-1387):

     “For sulfur, I sent Bonsho Priest to you.  The order is strict.  Details will be told by the priest.”

     Later, Yoshimitsu thanked Shimazu Motohisa (1363-1411) for 1.5 tons of sulfur, and gave him a set of armor and a sword.

     1.5 tons means it was for military supplies.

Sulfur and the Shimazu Clan (1)

     Shunkan (1143-1179), a priest, conspired a rebel against the Taira Clan, and was exiled to Kikai-ga-shima Island in 1177.  In the Tale of Heike, or the Tale of the Taira Clan, he described the island, “No crops are raised in this island.  Those who are mature enough climb up the mountain, pick up sulfur, see traders from Kyushu, and exchange sulfur with food.”

     Sulfur was not mined, but picked up.  Kikai-ga-shima is presumed to be Io-jima Island, literally Sulfur Island.  The island used to be the main sulfur production area for the Shimazu Clan even through the Edo Period.  The island is located 110 kilometers south of Satsuma Peninsula, and has an area of 11.74 square kilometers with the population of 128 today.  Mt. Io-dake (703 meters), literally Sulfur Peak, is the highest mountain there, and it is still an active volcano.

     Then, what was sulfur used for in Ancient Japan?  Although we don’t have written records at that time, we can make a guess through Medieval documents.

     Daitoku-ji Temple in Kyoto has preserved various historical records.  One of them reads that Shinju-an Temple, one of the branch temples of Daitoku-ji Temple, purchased lighting strings and sulfur each with 10 coins in 1493.  Nyoi-an Temple had a black lacquered box of sulfur in 1509.  Choro-ji Temple in Settsu Province newly bought a box of sulfur and lighting strings in 1528.  Those records indicate that sulfur used to be used as firelighters as it was in the Edo Period.

Sulfur, One of the Most Important Smuggled Goods (3)

     We can trace exporting sulfur to China back to the end of the 10th century.  Under the Song Dynasty (960-1279), firearms were deployed and used more and more often in battles and the usage of gunpowder expanded.  The Song central government imported sulfur as munitions from other Asian countries and put the imported sulfur under the central control.

     Later,  while the Southern Court and the Northern Court were fighting each other for the right to the throne in Japan, Prince Kaneyoshi (1329-1383), the South court’s Commander in Chief to Subdue Western Japan, offered horses, swords, armors, sulfur, etc. in 1379, and horses, sulfur, swords, fans, etc. in 1380 to Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).

     Tribute, offerings, whatever you may call it, sulfur was one of the most important exported goods from Japan for centuries.  Other exported goods included swords, halberds, amours, horses…..  Missions to China sound more like merchants of death.  No wonder those missions opened up the floodgates for Later Wokou, who smuggled munitions around the East China Sea.

     The National Museum of China has preserved a picture in which a battle between Wokou ships and Ming ships were painted.  Infrared photographs revealed that one of the Wokou ships was flying a banner which read “Koji san nen”, or the third year of Koji (1557).  It was in 1557 that the Otomo Clan sent a mission to Ming which was not admitted to be an official one by the Ming officials.  The question is whether the picture is unreliable, Wokou pretended the mission, or the mission turned into Wokou after the denial.

Sulfur, One of the Most Important Smuggled Goods (2)

     Let me show a couple of other examples of trading sulfur.  In 1465, the Otomo and Shimazu Clans offered 24 tons of sulfur for the mission to Ming in 1468.  The managers of the Muromachi Shogunate received the sulfur at Moji and Hakata.  6 tons of the sulfur was to be offered to Chenghua Emperor (1447-1487, reigning 1464-1487), and the other 18tons was to be sold in Ming.

     For the mission to Ming in 1484, Ashikaga Yoshihisa (1465-1489, reigning 1473-1489) wrote a letter to Otomo Masachika (1444-1496), ordering to offer sulfur as usual, and, as a messenger, dispatched Chen Zutian (?-?), a great grandchild of Chen Zongjing (1322-1395), a doctor under the Yuan Dynasty who came into exile in Chikuzen Province, Japan, after the collapse of the dynasty in 1368.  Each generation head of the Chen Family called themselves Chen Wuiro.  A Japanese sweet, uiro, was named after them.